-NRLF 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


Questions  and  Hnswm 
On  the  Practice  and  Cheery 

of  Sanitary  Plumbing 


eighth  Edition 
Revised  and  enlarged 


Including  Many  Valuable  Rules  and 
Formulae  and  "Tricks  of  the  Trade." 


BY 


R.  M.  STARBUCK, 

u 

Hartford,  Conn. 


AUTHOR    OF 

"Questions  and  Answers  on  the  Practice  and 
Theory  of  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating." 
'Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated." 
'Hot  Water  Circulation  Illustrated." 
'Mechanical  Drawing  for  Plumbers." 
'The  Starbuck  Plumber's  Estimate  Book." 
'The  Starbuck  Examination  Charts."  etc. 


COPYRIGHT 

1906 
«.    M.   STARBUCK 


PREFACE. 


In  presenting  to  the  plumbing  fraternity  successive 
editions  of  "  Questions  and  Answers/**  the  author  has 
endeavored  to  keep  pace  with  the  advancement  that 
is  constantly  being  made,  and  to  make  each  edition  of 
greater  value  to  his  readers  than  the  preceding  edition 
has  been.  The  original  purpose  to  present  the  subject 
in  as  concise  and  brief  and  practical  a  manner  as  pos- 
sible is  still  followed. 

In  the  present  edition,  while  some  additions  have 
been  made  to  the  body  of  the  book,  the  principal  ad- 
ditions are  to  be  found  in  the  appendix,  and  under 
the  section  devoted  to  "  Practical  Subjects."  Under 
the  latter  has  been  added  a  considerable  amount  of 
information  which  should  prove  of  much  value  to  the 
workman  in  his  daily  work.  It  is  the  hope  of  the 
author  that  this  edition  may  be  received  a*s  cordially 
as  have  preceding  editions. 

Hartford,   Conn.,  January,   1906. 


17976^ 


TRAPS. 

What  is  a  trap?  V 

A  trap,  as  applied  to  plumbing,  is  a  vessel  containing 
a  body  of  water,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  sewer  gas  and  foul  odors  from  the  sewer  or 
cesspool  into  the  house. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  the  house  or  main  trap?      ^ 

To  prevent  the  entrance  of  gases  from  the  sewer 
into  the  drainage  system  of  the  house. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  trap  under  each  fixture? 

To  prevent  the  entrance  through  the  fixtures  of 
gases  and  odors  that  form  between  the  fixtures  and 
main  trap,  or,  if  there  is  no  main  trap,  to  prevent  such 
entrance  directly  from  the  sewer  or  cesspool. 

What  is  meant  by  the  trap  seal?      */ 

The  depth  of  water  between  the  outlet  of  the  trap 
and  the  dip. 

What  is  ordinarily  a  safe  depth  of  seal?    y 

From  i  to  2  inch. 

Name  different  ways  in  which  trap  seals  may  be 
broken. 

By  syphonage,  evaporation,  capillary  attraction,  back 
pressure,  and  momentum,  that  is  by  the  action  of  the 
waste  itself  as  it  passes  off  with  considerable  force. 
The  trap  seal  may  also  be  broken  by  being  blown  out 
by  gusts  of  wind.  The  latter  action  may  occur  grad- 
ually, a  few  drops  being  blown  out  at  a  time. 

What  qualities  should  a  trap  possess? 

It  should  have  a  good  seal,  be  non-syphonable,  self- 
scouring,  have  no  internal  partitions,  -depend  on  no 
mechanical  device,  and  have  as  few  corners  or  places 
where  filth  may  collect  as  possible. 

Why  are  traps  with  internal  partitions  dangerous? 

A  flaw  may  exist  in  this  partition  above  the  water 
line  through  which  gas  may  enter  the  house. 

(5) 


6  Traps. 

V      Why  are  traps  having  mechanical  seals  now  prohib- 
ited in  most  cities? 

The  mechanical  parts  give  opportunity  for  the  col- 
lection of  grease  and  foreign  matter  in  the  trap  and 
the  mechanical  seal  is  soon  rendered  imperfect. 

What  are  the  two  principal  types  of  traps  on  which 
all  other  traps  are  based? 

The  S  trap  and  the  drum  trap. 

What  are  the  comparative  advantages  of  the  S  and 
drum  traps? 

The  S  trap,  being  self-scouring,  is  cleaner  than  the 
drum  trap,  but  when  unvented,  the  drum  trap  is  much 
less  liable  to  syphonage.  The  drum  trap  may  often 
be  used  to  better  advantage  under  the  floor  than  the 
S  trap. 

Is  it  the  amount  of  water  in  the  trap  or  the  depth 
of  seal  that  offers  the  most  resistance  to  syphonage? 

It  is  the  amount  of  water. 

J     Is  it  the  amount  of  water  in  the  trap  or  the  depth 
of  seal  that  offers  the  most  resistance  to  sewer  gas? 

The  depth  of  seal  offers  the  greatest  resistance. 

y     What  is  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  sewer  gas  on 
the  trap  seal? 

It  saturates  the  water  in  the  trap  with  sewer  gas, 
.which  is  finally  thrown  off  into  the  room. 

y    How  is  the  pressure  of  sewer  gas  upon  the  trap  seal 
prevented? 

By  back  venting  the  trap. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  with  traps  in  un- 
occupied houses  during  the  cold  months? 

If  the  traps  are  of  iron  or  lead,  they  may  be  salted, 
but  if  of  earthen  ware,  after  the  water  has  been  taken 
out,  parafine  oil  should  be  used  for  a  seal. 

With  the  ordinary  iron  sink,  having  the  bell  attached 
to  the  strainer,  what  should  be  done  after  the  kitchen 
sink  has  been  properly  trapped  below? 


Traps.  7 

The  bell  of  the  sink  strainer  should  be  broken  off, 
otherwise  the  sink  will  be  double  trapped  and  will  not 
run  off  freely. 

How  should  the  trap  which  serves  the  drainage  of 
the  cellar  bottom  be  protected  in  order  to  avoid  any 
danger  caused  by  evaporation? 

The  line  on  which  such  trap  is  placed  should  enter 
the  main  drain  on  the  house  side  of  the  main  trap, 
which  is  always  sealed.  Without  the  main  trap  there 
is  no  other  protection  than  its  own  seal.  It,  however, 
should  be  supplied  with  a  trap  screw  to  be  used  during 
the  dry  season.  Unless  the  trap  screw  with  rubber 
gasket  is  made  use  of,  it  should  be  seen  to  that  water 
is  occasionally  poured  into  the  trap  to  renew  any  loss 
that  may  have  occurred. 

Name  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  main  trap. 

The  advantage  claimed  for  it  is  that  it  safe-guards 
the  house  against  the  entrance  of  sewer  gas  through 
flaws  or  cracks  in  pipes  and  joints,  also  in  the  case  of 
repairs  when  a  fixture  trap  is  disconnected  temporarily. 
It  prevents  the  pernicious  effects  of  sewer  gas  on  lead 
and  iron  pipes.  It  also  acts  as  a  protection  to  the 
cellar  drainage  trap,  and  to  conductor  pipes.  The  dis- 
advantages claimed  in  its  use  are  that  it  prevents  the 
venting  of  the  sewer  through  the  main  stack,  that  it 
acts  as  an  impediment  to  the  flow  of  sewage,  and  is 
likely  to  become  fouled  and  to  freeze  up. 

What  style  of  trap  should  be  used  in  hotel  and  restau- 
rant kitchens? 

The  grease  trap  should  be  used  in  such  places. 
Describe  some  grease  trap. 

The  Tucker  Grease  Trap  is  perhaps  the  most  effi- 
cient. It  is  of  the  drum  trap  form,  its  entire  body 
being  surrounded  by  a  passage  which  is  connected 
with  the  cold  water  supply.  The  constant  change  of 
water  keeps  this  water  jacket  always  cool,  and,  as  the 
waste  enters  the  trap,  the  effect  of  the  surrounding 
cold  surface  is  to  separate  the  grease  from  the  liquid, 
allowing  it  to  rise  to  the  top,  where  it  may  be  taken 
out  through  the  cover.  A  partition  through  the  middle 
of  the  trap  prevents  the  grease  from  being  carried  out 
through  the  waste  as  it  rises. 


PLUMBING   FOR   RESIDENCE. 
(8) 


Traps.  9 

What  trouble  may  arise  from  double  trapping? 

The  space  between  the  two  trap  seals  may  become 
air  bound  and  thus  cause  a  slow  passage  of  the  waste, 
under  which  condition  the  stoppage  of  the  waste  is 
much  more  likely  to  take  place. 

Why   should   traps   be   counter-vented? 

To  prevent  syphonage  principally,  to  ventilate  the 
plumbing  system,  and  to  relieve  back  pressure. 

From  which  side  of  the  trap  should  the  counter-vent 
be  taken? 

From  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap. 

What  would  be  the  result  if  the  counter-vent  were 
taken  from  the  house  side  of  the  trap? 

Syphonage  could  not  be  prevented,  and  the  vent 
would  become  a  by-pass  for  sewer  gas. 

Does  experience  show  that  counter-venting  length- 
ens or  shortens  the  life  of  the  plumbing  system? 

Counter-venting   lengthens   it   materially. 


COUNTER-VENTING. 

^/  What  is  a  counter- vent? 

A  counter-vent  is  a  pipe  through  which  a  trap  is 
supplied  with  air. 

Why  should  traps  be  counter- vented? 

To  prevent  partial  or  total  syphonage  of  the  trap, 
and  to  ventilate  the  drainage  system  of  the  house. 

*/    How  does  the  counter-vent  prevent  the  syphonage 
yof  a  trap? 

By  supplying  air  to  the  crown  of  the  trap  no  vacuum 
can  be  formed,  and  consequently  syphonage  cannot 
take  place. 

From  which  side  of  the  fixture  trap  should  the  vent 
be  taken? 

From  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap. 
/     Where  should  the  vent  from  a  fixture  trap  be  carried? 

Either  into  the  main  vent  at  a  point  higher  than  the 
top  of  the  fixture,  or  directly  through  the  roof. 

Why  should  the  back  air  pipe  enter  the  main  line  of 
vent  pipe  higher  than  the  top  of  the  fixture? 

If  entered  below,  in  event  of  a  stoppage  of  the  waste 
pipe,  the  waste  from  the  fixture  would  pass  off  through 
the  vent. 

What  should  be  the  size  of  fixture  vents? 

The  vent  from  a  water  closet  or  a  slop  sink  should 
not  be  less  than  two  inches,  and  the  vent  from  all  other 
fixtures  should  not  be  of  smaller  size  than  the  waste 
pipe  it  serves. 

What  kinds  of  pipe  may  be  used  for  main  vents? 

Cities  differ  on  this  matter.  Most  of  them  allow 
either  cast  iron  or  galvanized  wrought  iron  pipe,  while 
others  prohibit  the  use  of  wrought  iron  pipe  entirely, 
and  still  others  will  allow  the  plain  wrought  iron  pipe. 

(10) 


Counter- Venting.  n 

What  kinds  of  pipe  may  be  used  for  fixture  vents? 

Cities  differ  on  this  point  also.  Some  call  for  lead, 
others  allow  lead  and  galvanized  iron  pipe,  and  in  some 
places  where  cheaper  work  is  done,  plain  wrought  iron 
pipe  may  be  used. 

In  what  different  ways  are  water  closets  vented? 

They  may  be  vented  from  the  lead  bend,  from  the 
vent  hub  attached  to  the  T-Y,  and  where  a  cast  trap 
is  used,  from  the  crown  of  the  trap;  also  from  the 
crockery. 

Why  is  it  wrong  to  vent  a  water  closet  from  the 
crockery? 

The  vent  being  rigid,  any  settling  of  the  floor  or  of 
the  house,  or  any  movement  of  the  fixture  itself,  is 
likely  to  break  off  the  vent  horn. 

If  the  water  closet  is  vented  from  the  lead  bend, 
from  what  part  of  the  bend  should  the  vent  be  taken? 

From  the  top  section  of  the  horizontal  part  of  the 
bend,  never  from  a  point  where  the  flush  will  throw 
matter  into  the  entrance  of  the  vent,  or  where  the 
waste  will  settle  into  the  vent  pipe. 

Why  should  the  use  of  rubber  vent  couplings  be  pro- 
hibited? 

Rubber  soon  loses  its  life  and  cracks,  allowing  odors 
and  gases  to  enter. 

^How  does  venting  effect  evaporation? 

It  increases  evaporation  by  bringing  in  air  upon  the 
trap  seal. 

How  are  the  top  and  bottom  connections  of  the  main 
vent  with  the  main  stack  usually  made? 

The  main  vent  is  usually  connected  at  the  top  with 
a  T  or  back  vent  fitting,  if  of  cast  iron.  If  of  wrought 
iron,  through  a  tapped  T.  The  bottom  connection  is 
usually  made  with  a  Y  and  eighth  bend.  Sometimes 
instead  of  re-entering  the  main  stack  at  the  bottom, 
the  main  vent  pipe  stops  at  the  lowest  fixture. 

What  advantage  is  there  in  returning  the  main  vent 
pipe  into  the  stack  below  the  lowest  fixture? 


12  Counter- Venting. 

It  makes  the  work  rigid  and  allows  any  scale  or  rust 
from  the  pipe  or  condensation  to  pass  off,  thus  pre- 
venting ultimate  stoppage  of  the  vent. 

Where  should  the  main  vent  pipe  be  carried? 

Either  through  the  roof  or  into  the  stack  above  the 
highest  fixture. 

/       Why  should  the  main  vent  pipe  enter  the  stack  above 
*      the  highest  fixture? 

If  entered  below  the  highest  fixture,  waste  from  that 
fixture,  in  passing  down  the  stack,  might  lodge  in  the 
vent  pipe. 

/     Why  is  the  main  stack  carried  through  the  roof? 

To  relieve  any  pressure  on  the  trap  seals,  to  ventilate 
the  plumbing  system,  and  to  furnish  a  supply  of  air  to 
the  fixture  traps  when  the  main  vent  is  connected  with 
the  stack. 

/  Why  is  it  wrong  to  run  back  air  pipes  into  the  chim- 
ney? 

The  collection  of  soot  might  close  up  the  vent,  and  a 
downward  draft  or  pressure  might  force  gases  and 
foul  odors  into  the  house  through  chimney  holes,  etc. 

Why  should  a  water  closet  located  close  to  the  stack 
be  counter-vented? 

The  action  of  fixtures  above  might  cause  at  least  a 
partial  syphonage  of  the  fixture  unless  prevented.  (See 
Syphonage.) 

Why  does  the  venting  of  a  water  closet  located  at 
considerable  distance  from  the  stack,  make  the  syphon- 
age of  the  trap  less  liable? 

With  a  long  line  of  horizontal  soil  pipe,  the  waste 
would  move  slowly,  and  a  slight  obstruction  in  the  pipe 
might  cause  the  water  to  set  back  sufficiently  to  fill  the 
long  arm  of  the  trap,  and  thus  produce  syphonage, 
which  venting  makes  impossible.  (See  Syphonage.) 

Do  you  consider  that  a  water  closet  located  close  to 
the  stack,  with  no  other  fixtures  entering  the  stack, 
needs  to  be  counter-vented? 

No,  foi  there  is  nothing  that  might  cause  syphonage 
of  the  water  closet  trap. 


Counter- Venting.  13 

4X      What  is  to  be  understood  by  back  pressure? 

The  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  the  sewer  side  of  a 
trap  seal. 

v    How  can  the  effects  of  back  pressure  be  overcome? 

By  counter-venting. 
^  What  causes  sewer  pressure? 

A  sewer  not  properly  vented  may  exert  a  pressure 
on  the  trap  seals,  by  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature 
within  the  sewer,  causing  an  expansion.  This  would 
be  liable  to  happen  if  a  great  amount  of  hot  water  or 
steam  were  thrown  into  the  sewer  suddenly.  The 
backing  up  and  filling  up  of  the  sewer  by  tide  water 
and  other  causes,  also  produce  pressure. 

When  a  fixture  is  located  over  8  feet  from  the  main 
vent,  what  course  should  be  adopted  for  its  ventilation? 

The  vent  should  be  carried  independently  through 
the  roof  or  enter  the  main  vent  stack  above  all  fixtures. 

Should  long  lines  of  vent  pipe  be  increased  in  size? 

After  passing  thirty  feet,  they  should  be  increased 
one  size. 


Ram  Uead.ec 


CELLAR   PLAN   OF   PLUMBING  FOR   RESIDENCE. 
(14) 


SOIL  PIPE  AND  DRAINAGE. 


What  is  the  distinction  between  soil  and  waste  pipes? 

Properly  speaking,  soil  pipe  is  pipe  into  which  the 
water  closet  discharges,  and  waste  pipe  that  into  which 
the  waste  from  other  fixtures  is  carried. 


Give  weights  of  cast  iron  pipe. 

2  in.  Standard  C.  I.  Pipe  weighs  per  ft., 

3 

4 

5 


6 

2  in.  Ex. 

3 

4 


Heavy 


10 


13 
17 
20 


Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs., 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 


What  sizes  of  waste  pipe  are  required  for  the  several 
fixture^? 

Water  closet,  4  inches;  bath  tub,  \y2  inches;  kitchen 
sink,  1^2  or  2  inches;  refrigerator,  i1/^.  inches;  wash 
trays,  il/2  inches;  lavatory,  i%  inches;  slop  sink,  2 
inches;  urinal,  il/2  inches;  pantry  sink,  \y2  inches. 

Of  what  material  should  waste  pipes  be? 

Of  lead,  if  of  short  length,  and  *of  cast  iron  where  the 
run  is  of  more  than  six  feet. 

What  is  the  smallest  size  of  waste  pipe*  usually  al- 
lowed? 

One  and  one-fourth  inch  is  the  smallest. 

What  is  the  least  fall  that  should  be  allowed  in  run- 
ning waste  and  soil  pipes? 

One-fourth  inch  to  the  foot. 

What  should  be  the  size  of  the  outlet  from  a  trap 
into  which  two  iJ4-inch  pipes  enter? 

Not  less  than  \y2  inches. 

(15) 


1 6  Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage. 

V^  Why  should  fixtures  such  as  sinks,  bath  tubs,  lava- 
tories, etc.,  have  independent  entrance  into  the  stack, 
rather  than  into  the  lead  bend  of  a  water  closet? 

To  avoid  the  setting  back  of  the  sewage  in  the  other 
wastes  if  the  water  closet  should  become  choked,  and 
to  avoid  any  roughness  on  the  inner  side  of  the  lead 
bend  that  a  joint  would  make,  which  might  result  in 
collecting  lint,  etc.,  and  causing  stoppage. 

*/  What  causes  the  gurgling  sound  frequently  heard  in 
the  waste  pipes? 

A  gurgling  in  waste  pipes  usually  is  the  result  of  air 
lock  or  lack  of  ventilation. 

Where  should  drip  pipes  from  safes  be  run? 

They  should  be  run  into  some  open  place  where  they 
can  be  seen,  but  in  no  case  should  they  enter  soil  or 
waste  pipes. 

What  is  a  safe  and  what  is  its  use? 

A  safe  is  a  shallow  pan,  usually  of  lead,  placed  under 
a  fixture,  with  a  drip  pipe  attached,  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  off  leakage  from  waste  and  supply  pipes,  val- 
ves, etc.,  thus  preventing  injury  to  the  floor  and* ceiling 
below. 

What  are  the  proper  weights  of  lead  pipe  permis- 
sable? 

Different  cities  establish  their  own  weights.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  weights  that  are  desirable. 

Supply.  Waste. 

5^  in.         2       Ibs.  I  in.  2  Ibs. 

s/s  in.         2^  Ibs.  1^4  jn.  2^  Ibs. 

24  in.          3       Ibs.  i^  in.  3  Ibs. , 

2  in.  3^2  Ibs. 

How  should  connections  be  made  between  lead  and 
cast  iron  waste  or  soil  pipe? 

By  means  of  a  brass  ferrule  wiped  on  to  the  lead 
pipe  and  caulked  into  the  cast  iron  pipe. 

How  should  connections  be  made  between  lead  and 
wrought  iron  pipes? 


Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage.  17 

By  means  of  brass  solder  nipples  which  screw  into 
the  wrought  iron  pipe  and  are  wiped  on  to  the  lead 
pipe. 

How  should  connections  be  made  between  wrought 
and  cast  iron  pipes? 

By  means  of  cast  iron  tapped  fittings  into  which  the 
wrought  iron  pipe  may  be  screwed. 

How  should  cast  iron  pipe  be  supported? 

By  means  of  wrought  iron  hangers  attached  to  tim- 
bers overhead. 

What  sizes  of,  rod  should  be  used  in  making  hangers? 

This  practice  differs.  The  following  is  a  safe  rule  to 
follow:  For  4-  and  5-inch  pipe,  J^-inch  rod;  2-  and  3- 
inch  pipe,  ^-inch  rod. 

How  often  should  cast  iron  pipe  be  supported? 

On  horizontal  lines  each  length  of  five  feet  should  be 
supported  by  a  hanger,  and  on  vertical  lines  the  pipe 
should  be  firmly  supported  on  every  floor. 

How  should  a  vertical  line  of  soil  pipe  be  supported 
at  its  base  where  it  runs  to  the  cellar  bottom? 

It  should  rest  on  a  firm  bed  of  brick  or  stone. 

Why  is  it  wrong  to  enter  a  branch  line  into  the  main 
through  a  T? 

The  waste  flowing  in  through  a  T  would  strike  the 
opposite  side  in  such  a  way  as  to  set  back  in  the  main 
each  time,  leaving  a  deposit  that  would  finally  produce 
a  stoppage. 

What  is  the  proper  way  to  enter  a  branch  into  a  main 
line  of  soil  or  waste  pipe? 

Y  branches  should  always  be  used. 

How  should  the  main  stack  or  any  other  vertical 
pipe  enter  the  horizontal  pipe  in  the  cellar? 

Through  a  Y  branch  and  one-eighth  bend. 

"How  should  all  changes  in  direction  of  cast  iron  pipe 
be  made? 

The  use  of  all  bends  is  admissable  in  changing  the 
direction  of  pipe,  with  the  exception  of  the  quarter 


i8  Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage. 

bend.    Where  the  change  in  direction  is  a  right  angle, 
a  Y  branch  and  one-eighth  bend  should  be  used. 

*    Why  is  the  use  of  the  quarter  bend  prohibited  on  all 
cast  iron  soil  pipes? 

For  the  same  reason  that  Ts  are  prohibited,  they  be- 
ing more  apt  to  cause  stoppage  than  the  Y  and  one- 
eighth  bend  connections. 

Where  should  clean-outs  be  placed? 

At  each  right  angle  turn,  at  the  end  of  each  horizon- 
tal line,  and  at  intermediate  points  in  long  lines  of 
horizontal  pipe. 

What  is  the  least  fall  that  should  be  given  soil  pipe? 
One-fourth  inch  per  foot. 
^Why  should  Y  branches  be  used  in  preference  to  Ts? 

Y  branches  permit  the  sewage  to  pass  through  with- 
out interfering  with  its  momentum  as  Ts  do,  thus  giv- 
ing a  much  better  wash  to  the  pipe  with  less  liability 
to  choke  up. 

How  far  should  soil  pipe  be  carried  from  the  house 
before  entering  the  earthen  drain? 

It  should  be  carried  ten  feet  from  the  inside  of  the 
wall,  or  two  lengths.  Where  the  drain  pipe  is  carried 
nearer  the  house,  the  sewage  is  liable  to  leak  out  and 
work  back  into  the  cellar. 

What  should  be  done  when  a  stack  opens  near  a 
window? 

It  should  be  carried  five  feet  above  the  window. 

Why  should  caps  not  be  used  on  ends  of  soil  pipe 
above  the  roof? 

By  diminishing  the  size  of  the  opening,  they  are 
liable  in  cold  weather  to  close  up  with  hoar  frost. 

Is  it  right  or  wrong  to  enter  a  line  of  pipe  into  the 
main  drain  on  the  sewer  side  of  the  main  trap? 

It  is  wrong,  for  by  such  means  the  sewer  gas  may  be 
transmitted  directly  into  the  house. 

/       What   benefit   is    derived   from    carrying    the    main 
stack  through  the  roof? 


Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage.  19 

It  relieves  the  pressure  of  the  sewer  gas  upon  the 
trap  seals,  allowing  a  free  circulation  through  the 
drainage  and  vent  systems  of  the  house. 

What  advantage  is  gained  by  entering  the  rain  lead- 
ers into  the  soil  pipe? 

The  rain  during  a  storm  acts  as  a  heavy  flush  and 
aids  in  keeping  the  drain  clean. 

What  is  the  relative  size  of  waste  and  vent  pipes? 

They  should  usually  be  the  same,  excepting  in  the 
case  of  the  water  closet. 

Why  should  soil  pipe  be  increased  to  four  inches  be- 
fore going  through  the  roof? 

During  the  cold  weather  pipes  of  less  diameter  than 
four  inches  are  liable  to  become  filled  with  frost. 

Why  should  all  lead  pipe  joints  on  the  drainage 
system  be  wiped? 

The  wiped  joint  is  much  stronger  and  more  perfect 
than  the  cug  or  overcast  joint. 

Under  what  conditions  should  conductor  pipe  from 
the  roof  be  allowed  to  enter  the  house  drain? 

Where  there  is  no  house  trap  the  rain  leaders  should 
be  independently  trapped.  Where  there  is  a  house  trap 
it  is  not  necessary  to  trap  them  separately  so  long  as 
they  enter  the  main  drain  on  the  house  side  of  the  main 
trap. 

Describe  the  cellar  drainage  system. 

This  drainage  is  used  in  cellars  where  the  bottom  is 
moist.  Under  the  cement  cellar  bottom,  and  com- 
pletely around  the  cellar,  is  laid  a  line  of*  porous  tile 
with  loose  joints,  which  drains  into  a  well  formed  in 
the  cement,  water  leaching  in  through  the  joints  and 
through  the  tile.  The  hub  of  a  cast  iron  trap  is  cement- 
ed into  the  bottom  of  the  well,  and  the  water  collecting 
there,  carried  into  the  main  drain.  Where  there  is  no 
main  trap  there  should  be  a  trap  screw  to  close  the 
opening  in  dry  weather. 

How  deep  should  the  lead  be  in  the  hub  of  a  four- 
inch  soil  pipe? 

About  one  inch. 


2O  Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage. 

What  is  the  result  of  too  great  depth  of  lead  in 
caulking  a  joint? 

If  there  is  too  great  depth,  caulking  will  not  expand 
the  lower  part  of  the  lead.  It  is  a  waste  of  material  as 
well. 

Describe  the  process  of  caulking  a  joint? 
^/ 

A  good  sized  ring  of  oakum  is  first  forced  into  the 
hub  (not  dropped  in),  and  set  with  a  caulking  tool 
until  it  is  hard.  The  melted  lead  is  then  poured,  and 
after  cooling,  firmly  set  down  with  the  iron,  care  being 
taken  to  caulk  the  inner  and  outer  circle  of  lead. 

How  is  a  horizontal  joint  made? 

After  the  oakum  is  firmly  caulked,  an  asbestos  rope 
is  usually  put  around  the  joint,  leaving  a  small  opening 
at  the  top  for  pouring  the  melted  lead.  If  no  asbestos 
rope  is  handy,  a  cloth  and  ring  of  putty  can  be  used, 
or  even  a  cloth. 

In  what  way  does  the  matter  of  climate  enter  into  the 
question  of  the  size  of  pipe  through  the  roof? 

In  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country  it  is  safe  to  carry 
small  sizes  of  pipe  through  the  roof,  but  in  the  colder 
sections  it  is  necessary  to  increase  them  to  at  least 
four  inches,  to  prevent  closing  up  with  frost. 

What  are  the  principal  tests  that  are  applied  to  the 
plumbing  system,  for  the  detection  of  leaks  and  faulty 
joints? 


The  water,  smoke,  and  peppermint  tests. 
Describe  the  water  test. 

A/ 

After  the  rough  work  is  completed,  which  includes 
the  caulking  in  of  all  ferrules,  solder  up  the  ends  of  all 
lead  pipes,  and  close  all  openings  in  soil  and  vent  pipes 
by  means  of  expansion  plugs,  known  as  test  plugs, 
then  through  one  of  the  plugs  attach  the  water,  usually 
by  means  of  hose.  The  entire  system  is  then  filled 
with  water  until  it  flows  over  the  roof  end  of  the  pipe. 
Each  joint  should  then  be  carefully  examined  for  leaks, 
any  defects  remedied,  cracked  fittings  replaced,  etc. 

*-  Describe  the  peppermint  test. 

After  the  work  is  complete,  to  test  the  several  fix- 
tures and  their  connections,  seal  all  traps  and  stop  all 


Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage.  21 

openings,  then  pour  the  liquid  into  the  top  of  the  stack, 
which  will  penetrate  through  the  smallest  opening  and 
show  leaks  if  any  exist.  The  common  mixture  is  about 
two  ounces  of  oil  of  peppermint  to  one  gallon  of  hot 
water. 

/   Describe  the  smoke  test. 

After  closing  all  openings  as  described  above,  smoke 
is  forced  through  the  system  by  means  of  special  ap- 
paratus, the  escape  of  smoke  showing  where  defects 
exist. 

Under  what  conditions  can  water  be  used  as  a  final 
test? 

When  the  plumbing  fixtures  are  all  on  one  floor,  all 
joints  can  be  covered  with  water  without  overflowing, 
which  is  far  better  than  the  peppermint  or  smoke  test 
besides  being  more  easily  done. 

What  precaution  should  be  taken  where  the  soil  pipe 
goes  through  the  cellar  wall? 

A  place  should  be  left  in  the  wall  when  the  wall  is 
laid,  with  a  cap  stone  covering  the  hole  so  that  no  un- 
necessary weight  may  come  on  the  pipe. 

How  can  a  stack  be  caulked  when  located  in  a  re- 
cess? 

Leave  the  lower  joint  on  the  vertical  pipe  until  the 
joints  above  are  caulked.  This  will  allow  of  turning 
the  pipe  around.  Finally  caulk  the  lower  joint  that 
has  been  left  at  a  point  that  can  be  easily  covered  with 
the  caulking  tool. 

Why  for  an  ordinary  house  is  a  four-inch  soil  pipe 
better  than  a  larger  size? 

Water  when  running  through  a  pipe  of  medium  size 
takes  on  a  spiral  motion  and  gives  a  much  better  wash 
than  it  does  in  going  through  a  larger  pipe,  where  it 
simply  runs  river-like  along  the  bottom  of  the  pipe. 

What  size  of  pipe  is  usually  used  between  the  house 
and  the  main  sewer? 

Five-inch  and  six-inch  pipe  is  generally  used  when  a 
four-inch  soil  pipe  is  used  inside  the  house,  and  larger 
sizes  when  the  house  pipe  is  more  than  four  inches. 


«2  Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage. 

V    What  kind   of   pipe   is   generally   used   between  the 
house  and  the  sewer? 

Glazed  tile  is  generally  used,  and  on  the  best  work 
cast  iron  pipe  is  also  largely  used. 

How  should  the  drain  pipe  enter  the  main  sewer? 

Above  the  center,  to  prevent  the  setting  back  of 
sewage  in  the  house  drain,  and  into  a  Y  branch  fitting, 
so  that  sewage  from  the  house  may  more  easily  take 
the  direction  of  the  sewage  in  the  main  sewer. 

V     What  precaution  should  be  taken  in  running  drain 
pipe? 

After  each  joint  is  laid,  a  swab  should  be  run  through 
the  pipe  to  take  off  any  loose  cement  that  may  have 
squeezed  through  the  joint.  A  lath  is  also  effective  in 
cutting  off  this  superfluous  cement. 

What  is  a  cesspool? 

A  cesspool  is  a  receptacle  sunk  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  sewage,  where 
it  is  impossibe  or  impracticable  to  enter  a  system  of 
sewers. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  locating  the 
cesspool? 

It  should  be  so  located  that  the  liquid  leaching  from 
it  into  the  surrounding  soil,  may  not  contaminate  the 
water  supply,  or  leach  into  the  cellar  of  the  house. 
This  would  ordinarily  necessitate  locating  the  cesspool 
at  a  distance  from  the  house,  and  if  the  latter  is  sit- 
uated on  an  incline,  the  cesspool  should  be  located  at 
a  lower  point  than  either  the  house  or  the  well. 

Describe  the  construction  of  the    leaching  cesspool^. 

When  properly  made,  the  cesspool  is  usually  built  of 
rock  or  brick,  firmly  put  together,  but  with  loose,  un- 
cemented  joints,  the  top  being  narrowed  down  so  that 
it  may  easily  be  covered  over.  Earth  is  banked  up 
around  it  so  that  the  surface  water  may  be  led  away. 
The  inlet  should  project  into  the  cesspool,  so  that 
solids  may  not  drop  from  its  end  upon  the  sides. 

Describe  the  working  of  the  cesspool. 

The  joints  being  loose,  the  liquid  portion  of  the  sew- 
age leaches  into  the  surrounding  soil,  leaving  behind 


Soil  Pipe  and  Drainage.  23 

the  solid  matter,  which  should  be  removed  from  time 
to  time.  When  the  joints  become  filled,  so  that  the 
leaching  process  does  not  proceed  easily,  or  when  the 
surrounding  soil  is  thoroughly  saturated,  the  cesspool 
should  be  removed  to  another  point,  or  an  overflow 
should  be  provided  to  a  second  cesspool. 

Should  the  cesspool  be  vented,  and  why? 

It  should  be  vented  in  order  that  gas  may  not  accum- 
ulate and  back  up  into  the  house. 

Where  the  cesspool  is  used  should  the  main  trap 
and  fresh  air  inlet  be  used  or  not,  and  why? 

These  matters  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way 
when  the  house  enters  a  cesspool,  as  when  it  enters 
the  sewer.  It  is  our  belief,  however,  that  the  use  of  the 
main  trap  and  fresh  air  inlet  is  desirable. 


FRESH  AIR  INLET. 

V 


What  is  a  fresh  air  inlet  and  what  is  its  use? 

The  fresh  air  inlet  is  a  line  of  pipe  run  from  the 
house  side  of  the  main  trap  and  opening  into  the  outer 
air.  The  use  of  this  pipe  is  to  prevent  air  lock  between 
the  fixture  traps  and  the  main  trap,  to  bring  into  the 
system  a  supply  of  fresh  air,  and  to  aid  in  creating  a 
circulation  of  this  air  through  the  plumbing  system. 

What  should  be  the  size  of  the  fresh  air  inlet? 

It  should  never  be  less  than  four  inches  when  the 
main  soil  pipe  is  four  inches.  In  most  cases  this  size 
is  large  enough  even  though  the  main  pipe  is  larger. 

Why  would  it  be  wrong  to  take  the  fresh  air  inlet 
from  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap? 

Because  it  would  not  only  fail  to  prevent  air  lock 
but  would  not  create  a  circulation  of  air  through  the 
system,  and  would  vent  the  sewer  in  a  dangerous  place. 

Where  should  the  fresh  air  inlet  enter  the  building? 

Through  the  cellar  wall  at  a  point  as  far  removed  as 
possible  from  windows,  doors,  and  cold  air  box  to  the 
furnace. 

How  far  should  the  outer  end  of  the  fresh  air  inlet 
be  carried  from  any  door,  window,  or  furnace  box? 

Fifteen  or  twenty  feet  if  possible.  This  frequently 
necessitates  running  out  into  the  yard  or  lawn  before 
coming  up  through  the  ground. 

Is  the  fresh  air  inlet  used  on  systems  having  no  main 
trap? 

It  is  not,  for  the  reason  that  in  such  a  case  there  is  a 
circulation  from  the  sewer  through  the  roof,  and  no 
danger  of  air  lock.  Moreover,  if  used  on  systems  hav 
ing  no  main  trap,  it  would  ventilate  the  sewer  in  a  dan- 
gerous place. 

Should  drainage  ever  be  entered  into  the  fresh  air 
inlet? 

Never. 

(24) 


Fresh  Air  Inlet.  25 

What  effect  does  the  fresh  air  inlet  have  upon  the 
evaporation  and  cooling  of  the  main  trap  seal? 

By  bringing  in  air  upon  the  seal  it  increases  evap- 
oration and  tends  to  cool  the  water  in  the  trap,  so  that 
freezing  is  more  apt  to  occur. 

Why  are  bends  in  the  fresh  air  inlet  a  benefit? 

They  make  the  entrance  of  air  upon  the  trap  seal 
less  direct  and  therefore  lessen  the  liability  of  freezing. 

Describe  the  different  ways  in  which  the  fresh  air 
inlet  is  taken  off  the  main  pipe,  and  how  run. 

It  is  often  taken  from  the  vent  hub  of  the  trap, 
sometimes  from  a  T  next  to  the  trap,  and  sometimes 
from  a  Y  and  bend  next  to  the  trap,  the  latter  being  the 
better  plan,  as  it  brings  the  air  in  less  directly.  This 
course  is  fast  being  adopted  in  the  principal  cities.  It 
is  sometimes  carried  up  through  the  roof. 

Why  is  it  often  poor  policy  to  carry  the  fresh  air 
pipe  through  the  roof? 

If  there  is  only  one  stack  in  the  house  and  that  is 
four  inches,  the  weight  of  air  in  that  stack  and  in  the 
fresh  air  inlet  may  balance  each  other,  with  the  result 
that  there  is  a  poor  circulation  or  none  at  all. 

With  the  main  trap  not  vented,  what  might  be  the 
effect  upon  the  action  of  syphon  water  closets  in  the 
house? 

Owing  to  air  lock,  syphonage  would  be  very  uncer- 
tain, and  there  would  very  likely  be  disagreeable  gurg- 
ling sounds  when  there  was  a  discharge  from  fixtures. 


WATER  CLOSETS. 

Name  different  kinds  of  water  closets  that  are  con- 
sidered sanitary. 

The  washout  water  closet,  the  washdown,  syphon, 
syphon  jet,  washdown-syphonic  action  water  closets, 
and  lowdown  styles. 

What  qualities  should  a  sanitary  water  closet  possess? 

It  should  be  well  trapped;  the  trap  should  have  a 
good  seal;  all  surfaces  exposed  to  soil  should  be  well 
scoured;  the  flush  should  be  abundant,  and  noiseless, 
without  undue  waste  of  water.  The  trap  seal  should 
not  be  hidden,  and  no  mechanical  devices  should  be 
used  with  the  exception  of  the  tank,  in  the  action  of 
the  water  closet. 

Why  should  cistern  or  tank  water  closets  be  used? 

In  order  that  there  may  be  no  direct  communication 
between  the  water  closet  and  the  house  drinking  water, 
also  that  a  better  flush  may  be  supplied. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  syphon  water  closet. 

An  explanation  will  be  found  under  "Syphonage." 

Name  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  modern  styles 
of  water  closets  over  the  old  styles. 

Dead  ends  that  are  neither  supplied  with  ventilation 
nor  water,  are  avoided.  Sections  of  pipe  that  in  the  old 
closets  between  trap  and  bowl,  were  unprotected,  in 
the  new  closets  are  covered  with  water;  a  better  flush 
is  secured,  better  ventilation,  and  a  greater  degree  of 
cleanliness,  with  less  odor. 

How  are  modern  water  closets  set? 

The  best  plan  is  to  use  a  brass  flange  to  which  the 
lead  bend  is  soldered,  using  a  rubber  gasket  between 
the  flange  and  the  base  of  the  closet.  In  some  cities  it 
is  allowable  to  flange  the  lead  bend  off  on  the  floor,  and 
to  use  a  ring  of  putty  between  the  closet  and  the  lead 
for  the  joint. 

(26) 


PlyUMBING   FORJJBATH   ROOM. 

(27) 


28  Water  Closets. 

Why  is  the  latter  course  objected  to? 

In  case  of  a  settling  of  the  floor,  shrinkage  of  the 
wood,  or  rotting  of  the  floor,  a  break  in  the  joint  and  a 
leakage  of  sewer  gas  is  liable  to  follow. 

Why  are  rubber  ells  recommended  for  connecting 
the  flush  pipe  with  the  water  closet? 

They  do  away  with  the  liability  of  cracking,  which 
often  follows  when  the  coupling  is  of  metal,  and  is 
rigid.  When  of  this  latter  style,  any  settling  of  the 
house  or  floor,  or  any  movement  of  the  fixture  itself 
will  crack  off  the  horn  of  the  water  closet. 

What  advantage  has  the  syphon  water  closet  over 
the  washout  water  closet? 

In  the  syphon  water  closet,  the  energy  of  the  flush 
is  exerted  without  loss,  producing  complete  syphonage 
under  atmospheric  pressure.  This,  in  addition  to  the 
bowl  wash,  gives  the  trap  a  cleansing  which  no  other 
water  closet  receives.  In  the  washout  water  closet, 
much  of  the  energy  is  wasted  in  removing  the  deposit 
before  the  trap  is  reached.  This  same  loss  of  energy  is 
noticed  in  the  old  pressure  closets,  where  the  water  is 
sent  around  the  bowl.  It  effects  the  bowl,  and  does 
good  work  at  that  point,  but  neglects  the  trap.  The 
syphon  water  closet  is  also  more  noiseless  than  the 
washout. 

Why  is  a  syphon  water  closet  comparatively  noise- 
less? 

The  inlet  of  the  flush  to  the  closet  being  sufficiently 
submerged,  meets  a  resistance  in  the  deep  seal  of  the 
trap,  and  this  resistance  or  check  being  under  water, 
the  noise  is  in  a  measure  destroyed. 

What  is  the  objection  to  dark  water  closets  or  water 
closets  in  cellars? 

Every  water  closet  or  other  plumbing  fixture  should 
have  the  benefit  of  sunlight  and  ventilation.  The  sun 
in  particular  is  destructive  to  germ  life.  The  water 
closet,  or  any  plumbing  fixture  for  that  matter,  cannot 
be  kept  too  clean  and  pure,  and  a  supply  of  sunlight 
and  fresh  air  is  well  nigh  indispensable  to  this  end. 

Why  would  an  unvented  water  closet  be  more  apt  to 
syphon  if  at  considerable  distance  from  the  stack? 


Water  Closets.  29 

With  the  long  line  of  horizontal  pipe  the  waste  would 
move  slowly,  and  a  slight  obstruction  in  the  pipe  might 
cause  the  water  to  set  back  sufficiently  to  fill  the  pipe 
and  trap,  and  when  this  volume  of  water  finally  moved 
off,  syphonage  would  be  very  liable  to  occur. 

Why  should  water  closets  situated  near  the  stack  be 
vented? 

If  there  were  fixtures  on  the  floor  above,  a  heavy  fall 
of  water  from  them  would  to  a  certain  extent  exhaust 
the  air  in  the  stack  as  it  passed  down.  The  air  in  the 
stack  not  following  so  fast  as  the  water,  this  partial 
vacuum  is  not  supplied  with  air  quickly  enough  to  pre- 
vent a  few  drops  of  the  water  closet  seal  being  forced 
out  by  atmospheric  pressure.  If  this  is  continued  for  a 
long  time  the  entire  seal  will  be  destroyed. 

Is  it  necessary  to  vent  a  water  closet  that  is  situated 
on  the  top  floor,  close  to  the  stack,  with  the  stack  pass- 
ing through  the  roof? 

It  is  not,  for  there  is  nothing  to  produce  syphonic 
action. 

How  would  you  decide  which  valve  was  leaking  in 
a  water  closet  tank,  with  both  valves  under  water? 

As  a  rule,  if  the  tank  was  full,  with  the  ball  sub- 
merged, and  running  into  the  overflow  of  the  tank,  the 
supply  valve  would  be  the  one  to  look  to,  but  when 
there  is  a  leak  through  the  closet,  with  the  tank  only 
partially  filled,,  the  flush  valve  should  receive  attention. 

Why  should  not  an  earthen  water  closet  be  salted, 
and  what  should  be  used? 

In  the  case  of  earthen  water  closets,  the  salt  is  liable 
to  pass  through  the  earthen  bowl  and  show  on  the 
outside.  Parafine  oil  should  be  used. 

At  what  height  should  water  closet  tanks  be  set?    / 

As  near  six  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  as  possible,  for  the  best  results. 

What  should  be  the  size  of  water  closet  tanks? 

The  seven-gallon  tank  is  the  best  size,  although 
many  use  the  five-gallon  tank. 


30  Water  Closets. 

In  what  other  ways  is  the  flush  tank  operated  be- 
sides by  the  pull  and  chain? 

By  the  weight  of  a  person  on  the  seat,  and  by  open- 
ing and  closing  of  the  door.  These  methods  are  used 
principally  in  public  buildings,  to  avoid  dangers  arising 
from  the  use  of  the  closet  by  ignorant  persons  who  do 
not  understand  the  principle  of  modern  plumbing  work. 

How  large  a  space  should  be  required  for  a  water 
closet? 

Although  a  good,  liberal  room  is  always  desirable, 
where  there  is  a  shortage  of  room  a  space  two  feet  by 
four  feet  is  as  small  as  should  be  considered. 

Why  should  water  closets  be  prohibited  that  are  not 
exposed  to  the  sunlight? 

No  plumbing  fixture  should  be  located  where  sun- 
light never  enters,  for  the  sun's  rays  are  the  best  pos- 
sible destroyers  of  almost  all  kinds  of  germ  life. 

How  does  the  low-down  water  closet  act? 

In  the  low-down  water  closet  we  do  not  have  the 
benefit  of  the  head  of  water  that  we  have  in  the  ordi- 
nary tank  closet.  To  overcome  this,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  size  of  flush  pipe  in  order  to  pro 
duce  syphonage  in  the  closet.  With  this  increased 
size,  even  though  we  do  not  get  the  head  as  from  the 
elevated  tank,  we  are  enabled  to  quickly  throw  a  quan- 
tity of  water  into  the  closet,  sufficiently  great  to  fill 
the  trap,  and  thus  make  the  syphon  operative. 


LOCAL  VENTING. 

What  is  a  local  vent? 

A  local  vent  is  a  line  of  pipe  connected  at  the  rear 
of  the  water  closet  and  under  the  seat,  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  off  the  noxious  odors  incident  to  the  use  of 
the  fixture. 

Is  the  local  vent  strictly  a  sanitary  measure? 

It  is  not.  No  ill  effects  result  if  it  is  not  used,  and  it 
is  put  in  simply  for  the  sake  of  comfort. 

What  material  should  be  used  for  local  vents? 
Copper  or  galvanized  sheet  iron  is  usually  used. 
Where  should  the  local  vent  be  carried? 

Into  a  heated  flue  if  possible,  above  all  openings.  If 
there  is  no  heated  flue  at  hand,  then  through  the  roof. 

Why  is  it  better  to  enter  the  local  vent  into  a  heated 
flue  than  to  carry  it  through  the  roof? 

The  heat  of  the  flue  creates  a  circulation  by  aid  of 
which  the  odors  are  carried  at  once  into  the  open  air 
through  the  chimney.  If  carried  through  the  roof  the 
upward  tendency  is  small,  and  often  the  tendency  will 
be  downward. 

Why  should  the  local  vent  enter  the  flue  above  the 
highest  opening? 

Otherwise  the  foul  air  might  be  driven  through  some 
chimney  hole  into  other  rooms  of  the  house. 

What  are  the  two  principal  methods  of  running  local 
vents  where  there  are  a  number  of  closets  in  the  house? 

One  method  is  to  carry  each  vent  separately  from 
the  water  closets  to  the  flue.  Another  method  is  to  run 
the  several  vents  into  one  main  local  vent,  which  is 
carried  into  the  flue. 

What  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  method  of  sepa- 
rate vents? 

Where  each  vent  branches  into  one  main  vent  it  is 
very  often  the  case  that  noises,  conversation,  etc.,  can 

(3D 


32  Local  Venting. 

be  overheard  in  different  parts  of  the  house.  When 
this  method  is  followed,  especially  in  double  tenement 
houses  where  closets  back  up  to  each  other  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  partition,  the  germs  of  contagious  diseases 
may  be  carried  through  this  vent  from  one  tenement  to 
another. 

In  what  way  is  a  draught  sometimes  created  for  the 
local  vent? 

If  there  is  no  heated  flue  at  hand,  or  if  the  vent  has 
to  be  carried  through  the  roof,  a  gas  jet  can  be  kept 
lighted  at  the  bottom  of  the  vertical  pipe.  This  warms 
the  air  and  creates  an  upward  draught. 

What  sizes  of  pipe  are  permissable  for  local  vents? 

Not  less  than  two-inch  pipe  should  be  used  for  a  sin- 
gle water  closet.  Where  two,  three,  or  four  vents  enter 
a  main  vent,  the  latter  should  be  increased  to  at  least 
three-inch. 

Name  some  general  requirements  of  local  venting. 

Pitch  all  vents  toward  the  fixtures  they  serve  in  order 
to  take  care  of  any  condensation,  and  to  assist  the 
draught;  use  as  few  turns  as  possible. 

How  should  chimney  connections  of  local  vents  be 
made? 

The  local  vent  pipes  should  run  either  into  a  piece  of 
cast  iron  pipe,  or  a  copper  pipe,  as  they  will  not  rust 
out.  This  piece  of  pipe  should  be  cemented  into  the 
chimney.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pipe  does  not 
project  beyond  the  inner  face  of  the  chimney,  as  soot 
might  eventually  partially  or  entirely  close  the  end. 


SOLDER,  SOLDER  JOINTS,  ETC. 

What  is  solder? 

Solder  may  be  called  a  cement,  and  is  used  for  join- 
ing various  metals  together,  such  as  tin,  copper,  lead, 
etc. 

Of  what  is  solder,  used  by  plumbers,  composed?     / 

It  is  composed  of  lead  and  tin  in  different  propor- 
tions, according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used. 

Give  the  proportions  of  different  solders  used  in 
plumbing  work. 

Wiping  solder,  3  parts  lead,  2  parts  tin. 
Bright  solder,  i  part  lead,  i  part  tin. 

Are  the  above  proportions  definite  in  the  case  of  wip- 
ing solder? 

No,  each  plumber  will  temper  his  solder  to  suit 
himself  —  some  working  it  finer  than  others. 

What  is  a  good  test  for  wiping  solder? 

A  good  test  in  general  is  to  pour  a  little  of  the 
melted  solder  upon  a  cold  surface.  If  it  cools,  leaving 
a  mottled  appearance,  it  is  about  right,  if  it  leaves  a 
granulated  appearance,  it  is  too  coarse,  or  if  a  very 
bright  appearance,  too  fine. 

Give  the  melting  points  of  the  two  solders  named 
above. 

Wiping  solder  melts  at  about  450  degrees;  bright 
solder  at  375  degrees. 

What  are  the  melting  points  of  lead  and  tin? 

Lead  melts  at  612  degrees;  tin  melts  at  442  degrees. 

Why  does  overheating  spoil  wiping  solder? 

It  burns  out  the  tin,  since  tin  is  consumed  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  lead.  This  makes  the  solder  too 
coarse. 

When  solder  sticks  to  the  wiping  cloth,  what  does  it 
show? 

3  (3:0 


34  Solder,  Solder  Joints,  Etc. 

It  shows  that  there  is  too  much  tin  in  the  solder. 
What  is  the  result  if  solder  contains  too  much  lead? 

The  solder  will  be  coarse,  and  the  joints  liable  to  be 
porous. 

What  is  the  result  if  the  solder  contains  too  much 
tin? 

The  solder  will  be  too  fine,  will  stick  to  the  wiping 
cloth,  and  will  run  off  from  the  underside  of  the  joint, 
making  a  good  joint  a  difficult  matter. 

When  the  cloth  scratches  in  wiping,  what  should  be 
done? 

Rub  into  the  cloth  a  little  powdered  chalk. 

How  should  a  joint  be  treated  after  it  has  been 
wiped,  to  give  it  a  mottled  appearance? 

While  it  is  cooling,  blow  upon  it.  Many  spit  upon  it 
while  they  are  blowing,  with  a  sort  of  spray. 

What  is  the  proper  width  of  a  4-inch  joint? 

About  iY2  inches. 

In  case  of  a  rough  place  on  a  joint  so  situated  that  it 
cannot  be  rewiped,  how  can  it  be  smoothed  up? 

With  a  hand  torch,  it  can  be  softened,  and  the  im- 
perfect part  be  wiped  over. 

How  should  a  bursted  lead  pipe  be  wiped? 

With  a  soft  dresser,  carefully  beat  back  the  extended 
pipe,  until  it  has  been  reduced  to  its  original  shape,  and 
the  burst  is  entirely  closed.  Then  properly  soil  and 
scrape  as  large  a  surface  as  the  joint  is  to  cover,  being 
careful  to  extend  it  where  the  pipe  has  not  been  strain- 
ed enough  to  injure  it.  After  greasing,  a  good  joint  can 
then  be  wiped,  in  the  shape  of  a  patch,  which  will 
make  the  pipe  at  this  place  stronger  than  ever. 

What  substances  make  wiping  solder  worthless? 

Zinc  particularly,  and  antimony  also. 

What  method  is  followed  in  purifying  solder  in 
which  these  substances  are  present? 

Heat  the  solder  to  a  high  temperature  (red  hot)  and 
add  sulphur.  The  sulphur  combines  with  these  im- 


Solder,  Solder  Joints,  Etc.  35 

purities  and  causes  them  to  rise  to  the  surface,  where 
they  are  skimmed  off,  after  which  a  little  rosin  is 
thrown  in. 

Why  should  wiping  solder  be  well  stirred  when  being 
used  or  made? 

The  tin  being  much  lighter  than  lead,  tends  to  rise 
to  the  top,  leaving  the  lead  at  the  bottom. 

Why  is  grease  rubbed  on  pipe  that  has  been  scraped, 
previous  to  wiping? 

The  grease  closes  up  the  pores  of  the  lead,  thus  pre- 
venting the  bright  surface  from  oxidizing,  which  ac- 
tion would  occur  in  a  short  time,  and  would  prevent 
the  perfect  union  of  solder  and  lead. 

How  would  you  restore  solder  that  had  been  purified 
by  heating  to  a  high  temperature? 

By  adding  tin. 

What  is  the  usual  length  of  wiped  joints? 

Usually  2]/4  or  2y2  inches. 

What  are  the  proportions  of  branch  joints? 

A  good  rule  is  to  measure  one  inch  in  each  direction. 

Explain  the  manner  in  which  a  joint  is  prepared  for 
wiping. 

After  the  two  ends,  or  the  branch  and  the  main  pipe, 
have  been  fitted,  the  pipes  are  scraped  until  the  sur- 
face which  the  joint  is  to  cover  is  bright.  Grease  is 
then  rubbed  onto  the  bright  lead.  Around  the  outside 
limits  of  the  joint,  soil  is  either  put  on,  pa,per  pasted 
on,  or  other  means  adopted  for  preventing  the  solder 
from  catching  on  the  pipe  beyond  the  joint. 

What  are  cup  joints? 

Cup  joints  are  made  by  flaring  one  end  of  the  pipe, 
dropping  the  end  of  the  other  pipe  into  this  flaring  end, 
and  dropping  solder  into  the  space  thus  formed. 

What  is  an  overcast  joint? 

An  overcast  joint  is  one  made  in  the  shape  of  a 
wiped  joint,  but  made  with  a  soldering  iron. 

How  is  wiping  solder  tested  for  the  proper  heat? 


36  Solder,  Solder  Joints,  Etc. 

Plunge  a  piece  of  dry  pine  or  a  piece  of  paper  rolled 
up,  into  the  melted  solder.  If  it  chars  quickly  the 
solder  is  hot  enough  to  work,  and  should  be  watched 
closely  from  time  to  time,  so  that  it  may  not  become 
too  hot. 

How  is  ornamental  work  wiped  onto  sheet  lead  or 
lead  pipe? 

First  cover  the  work  with  soil,  then  mark  out  such 
figures  as  it  is  desired  to  show.  After  scraping  and 
applying  tallow,  wipe  over  the  surface  with  rich  solder. 

Why  is  the  top  part  of  a  joint  wiped  first? 

The  tin  being  easier  to  melt  than  the  lead,  is  nat- 
urally kept  in  a  more  fluid  condition,  and  by  contin- 
ually piling  on  the  solder  around  the  top  part  of  the 
joint,  the  lead  by  preference  hangs,  or  sticks,  while  the 
more  fluid  part  of  the  solder,  which  is  the  tin,  runs  to 
the  bottom.  The  result  is  that  the  solder  at  the  top  of 
the  joint  becomes  coarser  and  sets  quicker,  and  should 
be  wiped  first.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  bottom  of  a 
joint  is  apt  to  be  brighter  than  the  top,  and  frequently 
a  little  teat  will  form  at  the  lowest  point. 


HOT  AND   COLD   WATER   SUPPLY. 

How  high  can  water  be  raised  by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure? 

Theoretically,  a  little  more  than  thirty-three  feet, 
but  practically,  the  friction  of  the  pipes,  bends,  etc., 
tends  to  reduce  this  height,  so  that  it  is  not  usually 
safe  to  count  on  more  than  twenty-eight  feet,  and 
sometimes  not  more  than  twenty-five  feet. 

Describe  the  method  of  supplying  a  cistern  hot 
water  boiler. 

This  style  of  boiler  receives  its  supply  from  a  tank 
situated  above  the  boiler,  usually  in  the  attic. 

Describe  the  method  of  supplying  a  pressure  hot 
water  boiler. 

This  boiler  is  supplied  directly  from  the  city  water 
main.  Being  usually  under  a  very  heavy  pressure,  it 
must  be  made  extra  strong.  ^ 

Which  hot  water  boiler  is  more  susceptible  to  sy- 
phonage,  and  why? 

The  pressure  boiler  is  more  likely  to  syphon,  and  for 
the  following  reason:  The  boiler  is  always  at  a  point 
higher  than  the  street  main. 

What  is  a  vacuum  valve? 

A  valve  placed  upon  the  supply  pipe  to  the  boiler, 
which  is  made  tight  from  internal  pressure,  but  upon 
the  pressure  being  withdrawn,  as  would  be  the  case  if 
the  boiler  was  being  syphoned,  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure from  without  would  open  the  valve,  and  by  ad- 
mitting air  break  the  syphon. 

Where  there  is  no  vacuum  valve,  what  should  be 
done? 

A  small  hole  should  be  drilled  through  the  cold 
water  pipe  within  the  boiler,  near  the  top. 

What  is  an  expansion  pipe  and  its  use? 

In  plumbing,  it  is  a  pipe  taken  from  the  highest  point 
on  the  circulation  and  led  above  the  source  of  supply, 

(37) 


TANK    SUPPLY    SYSTEM    FOR    RESIDENCE,    WITH    CIRCU- 
LATION AND  KEYBOARD. 

(38) 


Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply.  39 

with  its  end  over  the  tank,  or  above  the  roof.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  relieve  the  boiler  from  any  undue  pressure 
that  may  arise. 

Why  does  a  boiler  collapse? 

By  letting  cold  water  suddenly  into  a  hot  boiler,  a 
sudden  contraction  of  the  water  takes  place,  leaving  a 
partial  vacuum,  and  with  the  resistance  within  remov- 
ed, tha  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  from  without 
crushes  in  the  sides. 

What  is  the  advantage  of  a  circulating  system  on 
the  hot  water? 

By  a  continuous  circulation  the  water  in  passing  the 
fixtures  is  hot.  Otherwise  the  cold  water  would  have 
to  be  drawn  out  of  the  pipes  whenever  a  faucet  was 
opened,  before  hot  water  could  be  secured. 

At  what  intervals  should  half-inch  pipes  be  clipped 
up  where  there  is  no  other  support? 

Once  in  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches. 

Name  different  ways  of  securing  a  water  supply  in 
the  country. 

By  gravitation,  syphonage,  hydraulic  ram,  windmill, 
steam  pump,  and  house  pump. 

For  what  reason  is  compression  work  preferable  to 
self-closing  or  Fuller  work? 

By  the  slow  closing  of  compression  work  there  is 
less  danger  of  water  hammer  than  in  the  quick  closing 
of  self-closing  and  Fuller  work. 

If  street  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  force  water  to 
the  top  of  the  house,  how  can  the  result  be  accom- 
plished? * 

By  means  of  the  water  lift  or  pumping  engine. 

In  running  circulation,  how  should  the  pipes  be  ar- 
ranged? 

Hot  water  pipes  should  be  above  and  cold  water 
pipes  below. 

Where  should  the  return  pipe  be  connected  on  a 
street  pressure  circulating  system? 

At  the  bottom  of  the  boiler. 


40  Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply. 

How  should  lead  pipes  be  supported? 

By  strips  of  board  where  possible,  to  prevent  sag- 
ging. 

What  should  be  the  relative  difference  in  tempera- 
ture to  insure  good  circulation? 

Although  the  slightest  difference  in  temperature 
creates  a  circulation,  to  be  really  practical,  there  should 
be  a  difference  of  seven  degrees. 

How  should  hot  water  pipes  be  distributed? 

In  piping  the  kitchen  boiler  it  is  a  good  plan  to  run 
the  pipes  to  the  kitchen  sink  first,  making  the  other 
fixtures  secondary,  the  kitchen  sink  being  the  most  im- 
portant fixture  in  the  house.  The  laundry  tubs  take 
second  place  in  line  of  importance,  and  where  it  can  be 
done,  it  is  well  to  run  independent  lines  to  these  two 
points  as  direct  as  possible. 

Where  and  how  should  water  pipes  be  run  within 
the  house? 

If  possible,  all  pipes  should  be  centrally  located,  and 
near  a  chimney  that  is  in  use,  on  account  of  the 
warmth  thus  obtained.  Where  it  is  found  necessary 
to  run  pipes  on  the  outer  wall,  a  board  should  always 
be  placed  between  the  pipe  and  the  wall  to  prevent 
pipes  from  being  frosted  as  well  as  to  have  a  place  to 
fasten  the  pipes. 

What  is  the  object  of  a  sediment  cock  on  the  boiler, 
and  where  is  it  placed? 

It  is  used  in  emptying  the  boiler  for  repairs,  or  in 
drawing  off  the  sediment  that  has  collected  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boiler.  It  is  connected  into  the  cold  water 
pipe  between  the  boiler  and  the  range.  Very  often  the 
end  of  the  sediment  cock  is  connected  by  a  waste  pipe 
into  the  drainage  system. 

What  is  the  object  of  the  double  boiler? 

To  furnish  hot  water  at  a  greater  height  than  it  can 
be  carried  by  the  city  pressure,  as  well  as  to  furnish  it 
to  the  lower  floors. 

What  means  are  employed  to  protect  pipes  from 
frost? 


Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply.  41 

Where  pipes  are  outside  of  the  house  in  an  exposed 
place,  they  may  be  kept  from  freezing  through  the 
winter,  even  though  they  are  above  ground,  by  first 
building  a  box  the  length  of  the  pipe  exposed,  and 
filling  it  with  horse  manure,  then  laying  the  pipe 
through  it.  The  heat  of  the  manure  will  last  through 
the  season.  Short  pieces  of  lead  pipe  can  be  protected 
to  quite  an  extent  by  imbedding  them  in  rosin.  Saw- 
dust is  also  very  good  if  it  can  be  kept  dry.  In  run- 
ning pipes  through  the  ground  they  should  be  covered 
first  with  sand.  This  is  a  much  better  protection  than 
clay  or  gravel.  In  running  long  lines  of  pipe  in  the 
country,  one  of  the  best  protections  possible  is  to  jay 
it  at  the  bottom  of  a  running  stream.  In  running 
through  grass  land,  it  is  safe  to  place  the^pipe  a  foot 
nearer  the  surface  than  in  the  street. 

What  causes  the  chattering  frequently  heard  when  a 
faucet  is  opened? 

It  is  the  vibration  of  some  part  that  is  loose  within 
the  faucet.  Oftentimes  it  is  simply  the  packing  that 
is  loose. 

Why  is  the  cold  water  pipe  taken  to  the  bottom  of 
the  boiler  through  a  tube? 

That  the  cold  water  may  at  once  be  taken  to  the 
coldest  part  of  the  boiler,  and  not  mix  with  the  hot 
water. 

What  precautions  are  sometimes  taken  with  pipes 
running  between  floor  and  ceiling,  to  prevent  damage 
from  bursts  and  condensation  on  the  pipe? 

They  are  sometimes  laid  in  lead  or  tin  troughs. 

Why  does  the  flow  pipe  give  out  oftener  than  the 
return? 

The  constant  expansion  and  contraction  in  the  flow 
pipe,  due  to  heat,  weakens  the  pipe  in  time,  and  even 
at  a  constant  heat,  where  there  is  no  expansion  or  con- 
traction, a  heated  pipe  is  not  as  strong  as  a  cold  one. 

What  is  the  usual  cause  of  the  bursting  of  a  water 
front? 

Stoppage,  due  to  the  collection  of  rust,  is  probably 
the  most  common  cause. 


42  Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply. 

Why  should  a  room  holding  the  tank  that  supplies 
the  house  with  water,  be  ventilated? 

Water  very  quickly  absorbs  any  impurities  that  may 
be  in  the  air,  and  ventilation,  of  course,  is  an  efficient 
means  of  purifying  the  air  of  a  room. 

What  is  a  good  size  for  the  supply  tank  to  the  cist- 
ern boiler? 

A  good  size  is  twenty-four  inches,  by  sixteen  inches, 
by  fifteen  inches. 

To  pipe  range  boiler  when  range  is  on  floor  above 
boiler. 

The  location  of  range  above  boiler  is  to  be  avoided 
whenever  possible,  as  such  an  arrangement  is  directly 
opposed  to  the  principles  of  circulation.  Where  oblig- 
ed to  make  such  connections,  the  following  will  give 
good  results.  Carry  the  flow  pipe  from  the  range  as 
many  feet  up  as  it  is  desired  to  drop  below  the  water 
front  in  inches,  the  pipe  forming  a  loop.  It  is  not 
usually  possible  to  carry  the  pipe  as  high  as  this,  but 
the  nearer  such  height  can  be  obtained,  the  better  the 
result.  At  the  top  of  the  loop  an  air  cock  should  be 
placed,  or  a  pipe  connected  leading  to  some  nearby 
fixture.  To  supply  the  house  fixtures,  it  is  well  to  take 
the  supply  from  the  top  of  the  loop. 

Leading  small  pipes. 

In  leading  a  joint,  particularly  if  on  small  pipe,  al- 
ways put  the  lead  onto  the  male  end  rather  than  inside 
the  fitting.  If  otherwise,  the  lead  is  liable  to  be  forced 
into  the  pipe  and  obstruct  the  opening.  Many  times  a 
small  pipe  is  completely  closed  up  by  carelessness  of 
this  nature. 

Water  hammer. 

This  is  a  very  common  trouble  and  it  may  arise  from 
a  number  of  causes.  The  most  common  cause  is  a  sag 
in  the  flow  pipe,  which  should  always  have  a  constant 
rise.  Water  hammer  may  be  caused  by  an  obstruction 
in  the  pipe,  which  may  result  from  rust,  dirt,  the  gas- 
ket in  a  union,  etc.  Very  often  the  water  front  be- 
comes choked  up  with  rust  and  sediment.  Still  another 
matter  to  be  considered  is  the  relative  size  of  range 
and  boiler,  as  too  much  heating  surface  is  liable  to 


Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply.  43 

raise  the  temperature  to  the  steam  point,  when  ham- 
mering is  apt  to  be  caused.  In  the  latter  case  a  tempo- 
rary relief  may  be  obtained  by  opening  the  hot  water 
faucet  at  one  of  the  fixtures,  thus  allowing  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  cold  water  to  enter  the  boiler  to  reduce  the 
temperature.  Often  relief  can  be  obtained  by  running 
a  line  of  circulating  pipe  above  the  boiler. 


PUMPS. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  ordinary  suction  pump. 

When  the  pump  boxes  are  raised  in  the  barrel  of  the 
pump,  they  exhaust  the  air  to  a  certain  extent,  leaving 
behind  a  partial  vacuum.  When  this  happens  there  is 
nothing  to  counteract  the  atmospheric  pressure,  which 
is  exerted  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well.  This 
pressure  at  once  forces  water  up  into  the  pump,  from 
which  it  passes  out  through  a  spout. 

What  are  the  pumps  most  commonly  in  use? 

The  suction  pump,  the  lift  pump,  and  the  force  pump. 

Theoretically,  how  high  can  water  be  drawn  by  suc- 
tion? 

A  trifle  over  thirty-three  feet. 

Practically,  how  high  can  water  be  drawn  by  suc- 
tion? 

Not  much  over  twenty-eight  feet,  and  very  often  cir- 
cumstances will  not  allow  it  to  be  drawn  much  over 
twenty-five  feet. 

What  causes  make  this  difference  in  the  height  to 
which  water  can  be  raised? 

At  the  sea  level,  atmospheric  pressure  is  greater 
than  at  the  top  of  a  mountain.  Then  too,  the  pump 
boxes  are  not  so  perfect  as  to  leave  a  perfect  vacuum, 
and  atmospheric  pressure  is  counterbalanced  to  some 
extent  by  the  friction  of  the  water  on  the  pipe,  by 
bends  in  the  pipe,  and  by  long  horizontal  runs. 

Can  water  be  drawn  from  as  great  a  depth  on  a  high 
elevation  as  on  a  lower  one,  or  not,  and  why? 

It  cannot  be  drawn  so  great  a  distance,  for  atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  less  on  the  higher  elevation. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  lift-force  pump. 

In  this  pump  there  is  a  check  valve  opening  upward 
in  the  delivery  pipe.  There  is  also  a  valve  in  the  pis- 
ton. As  the  piston  travels  up,  a  partial  vacuum  is 
created,  and  water  enters  the  pump  as  in  the  case  of 

(44) 


Pumps.  45 

the  suction  pump  described  above.  When  the  piston 
travels  down,  it  compresses  the  water,  thereby  closing 
the  lower  valve  and  forcing  the  water  through  and 
above  the  piston.  As  the  piston  now  travels  up,  the 
weight  of  the  water  closes  the  piston  valve  and  fhe 
water  is  lifted.  The  lifting  of  the  water  forces  open 
the  check  valve  in  the  discharge  pipe  which  has  been 
kept  closed  by  the  weight  of  the  water  standing  in  this 
pipe.  The  water  which  has  been  lifted,  is  now  forced 
through  this  check  valve  into  the  discharge  pipe.  As 
soon  as  the  force  which  keeps  open  this  valve  is  with- 
drawn, the  weight  of  water  in  the  discharge  pipe  keeps 
the  valve  closed  until  water  is  again  raised  on  the  next 
stroke. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  force  pump. 

In  the  force  pump  as  in  the  lift-force  pump,  there  is 
a  check  valve  in  the  delivery  pipe,  but  the  piston  of  the 
force  pump  is  solid.  Water  enters  the  pump  by  means 
of  suction.  When  the  piston  travels  down,  it  closes  the 
lower  valve  and  compresses  the  water  in  the  pump, 
forcing  it  into  the  discharge  pipe,  and  forcing  the  check 
valve  open.  When  this  pressure  is  withdrawn,  the 
weight  of  the  water  closes  the  check  valve  until  com- 
pression again  forces  more  water  into  the  discharge 
pipe. 

Name  different  ways  in  which  a  water  supply  may  be 
procured  where  there  is  no  city  pressure. 

By  means  of  gravitation  or  by  means  of  syphonage 
from  a  spring  or  other  supply  above  the  point  of  de- 
livery; by  means  of  the  hydraulic  ram,  when  the  source 
of  supply  is  lower  than  the  point  of  delivery,  and  a  fall 
can  be  secured  from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  ram; 
and  by  means  of  the  pump  worked  either  by  hand,  by 
windmill,  or  by  engine. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  the  air  chamber? 

The  purpose  of  the  air  chamber  is  to  destroy  the 
shock  on  the  supply  pipes  occasioned  by  the  sudden 
opening  and  closing  of  valves. 

In  what  way  does  the  air  chamber  prevent  this 
shock? 

Water  is  nearly  non-compressible,  but  air  is  com- 
pressible. Consequently,  when  a  column  of  water 


46  Pumps. 

strikes  an  air  cushion  such  as  the  air  chamber  really  is, 
the  air  contained  in  it  compresses  somewhat,  using  up 
thereby  the  force  of  the  water. 

How  may  an  air  chamber  be  destroyed? 

Unless  the  air  in  an  air  chamber  is  occasionally  re- 
newed, each  successive  discharge  of  water  results  in 
the  absorption  of  a  small  portion  of  air  by  the  water, 
which  is  carried  out  with  the  discharge,  and  thus  lost. 
In  time,  the  air  chamber  will  completely  lose  its  air. 

How  may  this  fault  be  remedied? 

By  placing  an  air  cock  in  the  bottom  of  the  air  cham- 
ber. Occasionally  the  water  should  be  shut  off,  and 
the  water  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  air  in  the  air 
chamber,  drawn  off  through  this  cock.  When  this  has 
been  done,  air  fills  into  the  chamber  through  the  cock, 
which  may  then  be  closed. 

When  is  the  deep  well  pump  required? 

When  the  supply  is  more  than  twenty-five  to  twenty- 
eight  feet  below  the  surface. 

What  are  the  chief  differences  between  deep  well 
and  surface  pumping? 

As  previously  stated,  water  cannot  be  drawn  by  suc- 
tion much  over  twenty-eight  feet.  Consequently  in  the 
deep  well  pump,  the  working  parts  of  the  pump,  that  is, 
the  barrel  and  the  valves,  must  be  placed  below  the  sur- 
face, so  that  they  shall  be  within  about  twenty-eight 
feet  of  the  supply.  The  deep  well  pump  must  further- 
more be  a  force  pump  in  order  to  send  the  water  above 
the  surface  to  the  point  of  delivery.  In  surface  pumps, 
that  is,  where  the  point  of  delivery  is  not  over  twenty- 
eight  feet  from  the  supply,  the  suction  pump  may  be 
used.  With  the  surface  pump,  it  does  not  much  matter 
whether  it  is  directly  over  the  well  or  at  a  distance,  but 
in  the  case  of  the  deep  well  pump,  it  must  be  directly 
over  the  well,  in  order  that  the  pump  rod  may  be 
worked.  Owing  to  the  heavier  work  that  it  A  is  called 
upon  to  perform,  the  deep  well  pump  is  usually  made 
much  stronger  and  heavier  than  the  surface  pump. 

Explain  the  main  principle  on  which  the  hydraulic 
ram  acts. 

The  principle  is,  viz.:  If  a  quantity  of  water  is  set  in 
motion  down  an  inclined  tube,  and  its  escape  from  the 


* 


Pumps.  47 

lower  orifice  is  suddenly  stopped,  the  momentum  of 
the  moving  mass  of  water  drives  up  a  portion  of  its 
own  volume  to  an  elevation  much  higher  than  that  from 
which  it  first  descended. 

Describe  the  mechanism  of  the  hydraulic  ram. 

From  the  spring  or  pond  which  acts  as  the  supply, 
a  pipe  called  the  drive  pipe  is  laid  downward  to  the 
ram.  As  the  water  rushes  down  this  pipe  it  endeavors 
to  escape  through  a  weighted  valve,  but  its  passage  is 
suddenly  checked,  with  the  result  that  the  momentum 
stored  up  in  the  water  of  the  drive  pipe,  forces  a  con- 
siderable amount  up  into  the  air  chamber  and  into  the 
delivery  pipe,  which  is  supplied  at  the  bottom  with  a 
check  valve,  as  in  the  force  pump.  The  proper  work- 
ing of  the  weighted  valve  makes  the  ram  self-acting. 
To  accomplish  this  result,  the  valve  is  loaded  with  a 
weight  just  great  enough  to.  throw  it  off  its  seat,  when 
the  water  in  the  drive  pipe  is  at  rest,  so  that  when  there 
is  additional  force  exerted,  the  valve  closes. 

Only  in  what  location  is  the  hydraulic  ram  appli- 
cable? 

Only  when  the  ram  can  be  located  below  the  supply. 
Is  the  hydraulic  ram  economical  in  the  use  of  water? 

It  is  not,  and  is  used  generally  only  in  places  where 
the  waste  of  water  is  of  no  moment. 

On  what  does  the  work  which  a  ram  can  perform, 
depend? 

On  the  amount  of  fall  between  the  source  of  supply 
and  the  weighted  valve  of  the  ram.  * 

What  is  the  least  amount  of  fall  necessary  to  the 
working  of  a  ram,  and  what  fall  is  usually  preferable? 

A  fall  of  bnly  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  is  sufficient 
to  operate  the  ram,  but  a  fall  of  five  to  ten  feet  is 
preferable. 

What  are  the  relative  sizes  of  drive  and  delivery 
pipes  for  the  hydraulic  ram? 

The  delivery  pipe  is  usually  of  only  half  the  diameter 
of  the  drive  pipe. 


48  Pumps. 

What  is  the  height  to  which  the  ram  will  deliver 
water,  and  the  amount? 

The  ram,  when  properly  set,  will  deliver  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  water  issuing  from  the  source  of  supply, 
to  an  elevation  five  times  as  great  as  the  distance  from 
the  source  to  the  valve,  or  one-fourteenth  to  an  eleva- 
tion ten  times  this  distance,  and  so  on,  in  the  same 
proportion. 

How  should  the  bottom  of  a  suction  pipe  be  arranged 
in  the  well? 

The  lower  end  should  be  stopped  to  prevent  sand 
from  entering,  and  about  four  inches  from  the  end  holes 
should  be  drilled.  In  some  cases  a  return  bend  is 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  suction  pipe,  which  gives  a 
downward  instead  of  an  upward  suction  at  first.  What 
is  termed  a  mushroom  strainer  is  also  sometimes  used. 

How  would  you  proceed  in  repairing  a  pump? 

The  first  thing  in  repairing  a  pump  is  to  see  that  the 
lower  box  holds  water.  When  this  is  accomplished,  if 
the  pump  runs  down,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  leak 
somewhere  in  the  pipe,  and  we  must  proceed  to  find  it. 
By  placing  the  ear  to  the  pipe,  after  the  water  has  been 
drawn  into  the  pump,  a  hissing  sound  will  be  heard  if 
there  is  a  leak,  which  should  be  traced  up.  It  sounds 
plainer  as  the  leak  is  approached.  A  good  plan  is  to 
clasp  the  pipe  in  the  hand.  When  the  leak  is  covered, 
the  hissing  stops.  When  iron  pipe  is  used,  it  is  much 
harder  to  locate  the  leak  on  account  of  the  sound  being 
telephoned  through  the  pipe  for  a  long  distance,  the 
sound  being  nearly  as  distinct  at  one  point  as  another. 
With  iron  pipe,  rub  soap  around  each  joint  until  the 
sound  stops.  The  pump  and  pipe  must  always  be 
charged  to  produce  this  hissing  sound,  which  is  caused 
by  the  air  rushing  in  to  fill  the  vacuum  formed  by  the 
water  in  dropping.  By  looking  into  the  top  of  the 
pump,  bubbles  will  be  seen  to  rise  when  pumping,  if 
there  is  a  leak.  Having  gotten  the  lower  box  and  pipe 
tight,  if  the  pump  throws  a  small  stream,  then  look  to 
the  upper  box,  for  it  is  probably  worn  so  that  it  is  too 
loose,  and  the  water  escapes  past  it.  If  the  brake  flies 
back  forcibly,  it  shows  ^ that  the  pipe  is  stopped,  or  that 
the  water  cannot  be  raised  so  far. 


Pumps.  49 

Describe  the  construction  of  a  driven  well. 

Fasten  the  point  to  a  short  piece  of  pipe  provided  at 
one  end  with  a  cap  firmly  screwed  on.  After  boring 
with  the  auger  to  a  convenient  depth,  place  the  point  in 
the  hole.  Now  let  the  helper  rest  a  piece  of  timber  on 
the  cap  to  take  the  blows  of  the  sledge  used  in  driving 
down  the  pipe.  When  the  pipe  has  settled  into  the 
ground  sufficiently,  screw  on  another  short  length  of 
pipe.  The  pipe  should  be  often  turned  with  the  tongs, 
to  keep  it  loose  in  the  ground.  As  water  is  reached,  the 
pipe  generally  drives  more  easily  for  a  short  distance, 
when  the  driving  becomes  difficult  again,  because  of 
the  hard  pan  which  generally  lies  below  each  vein  of 
water.  When  this  is  reached,  drop  a  plumb  bob  into 
the  pipe  and  note  the  depth  of  water  by  the  moisture 
on  the  string.  If  the  vein  of  water  is  not  of  sufficient 
depth,  then  drive  down  to  the  next  vein,  which  is  liable 
to  be  some  ten  feet  lower,  although  this  depth  would 
differ  in  different  localities.  When  sufficient  water  has 
been  found,  attach  an  old  pump  to  the  pipe,  and  pump 
out  the  sand  until  sufficient  clean  gravel  has  collected 
about  the  point  to  act  as  a  strainer  and  protection  for 
the  point.  The  iron  pump  with  a  round  seat  for  the 
lower  valve  is  the  best  pump  for  this  use,  because  there 
is  less  opportunity  for  sand  to  lodge  in  the  valve. 


THEORY. 

What  is  atmospheric  pressure? 

As  usually  spoken  of,  it  is  the  pressure  exerted  .by 
the  atmosphere  on  an  area  of  one  square  inch,  or,  in 
other  words,  it  is  the  weight  of  a  column  of  air  one 
square  inch  in  cross  section.  At  the  sea  level  this  col- 
umn of  air,  that  is,  the  earth's  atmosphere,  is  com- 
puted to  be  about  forty-five  miles  deep,  giving  a  pres- 
sure of  fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Why  is  the  atmospheric  pressure  less  at  the  top  of  a 
mountain  than  at  the  sea  level? 

Because  the  depth  of  the  atmosphere  is  necessarily 
less  at  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

How  does  atmospheric  pressure  affect  the  boiling  of 
liquids? 

The  temperature  at  which  a  liquid  boils,  rises  as  the 
atmospheric  pressure  increases.  Therefore  water  will 
boil  at  a  lower  temperature  at  the  top  of  a  mountain 
than  at  its  base. 

How  does  atmospheric  pressure  apply  particularly 
in  plumbing  work? 

It  applies  in  pump  work,  and  whenever  syphonic  ac- 
tion occurs,  also  on  certain  devices  acting  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  vacuum  valve. 

Describe  the  vacuum  valve. 

The  vacuum  valve  under  normal  conditions  is  closed 
by  the  pressure  of  water  from  within.  When  a  vacuum 
forms  within  the  vessel  to  which  the  valve  is  attached, 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  exerted  on  the  outer 
face  of  the  valve,  forces  air  into  the  vessel,  thus  break- 
ing the  vacuum,  and  preventing  disastrous  results 
which  might  otherwise  occur. 

What  is  meant  by  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere? 

A  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  is  a  pressure  of  fifteen 
pounds.  In  like  manner  a  pressure  of  four  atmos- 
pheres would  mean  a  pressure  of  sixty  pounds,  etc. 

v  (SO) 


COUNTRY    PLUMBING  —  DRAINAGE    SYSTEM 
UNVENTILATED. 

(50 


52  Theory. 

Explain  the  action  of  expansion  and  contraction. 

Where  heat  is  applied  to  a  body  of  a  metallic  nature, 
the  particles  of  which  the  body  is  composed,  increase 
in  size,  and  the  body  itself  naturally  takes  up  a  greater 
amount  of  space  than  when  in  its  normal  condition, 
that  is  to  say,  it  expands.  When  the  body  is  subjected 
to  cold,  the  opposite  action  takes  place,  that  is,  the 
body  contracts.  If  heat  is  applied  beyond  a  certain 
amount,  varying  with  each  different  metal,  the  expan- 
sion becomes  so  great  that  the  particles  will  no  longer 
hold  together,  and  the  body  is  transformed  into  a 
liquid  state.  Expansion  and  contraction  apply  to  many 
substances  other  than  metals. 

In  what  important  ways  do  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion apply  to  plumbing  work? 

In  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  water  and  air. 
Circulation,  whether  in  connection  with  the  hot  water 
supply,  or  heating  operations,  depends  on  this  prin- 
ciple. All  ventilation,  including  the  local  venting  of 
water  closets,  also  depends  on  the  same  principle. 

What  provision  is  made  on  hot  water  supply  systems 
for  expansion? 

In  the  case  of  the  tank  supply  system  a  pipe  is  car- 
ried from  the  highest  point  on  the  hot  water  supply  to 
the  tank,  into  which  the  expansion  vents  itself  when 
sufficiently  great  to  reach  this  point.  On  direct  supply 
systems  no  provision  is  necessary,  for  expansion  takei 
place  back  to  the  reservoir.  On  direct  pressure  work, 
however,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  use  heavier  boilers 
than  on  tank  work. 

How  does  the  expansion  of  water  differ  from  that  of 
other  substances? 

As  previously  stated,  substances  in  general  continue 
to  expand  as  long  as  heat  is  added,  and  to  contract  as 
long  as  the  heat  applied  grows  less.  Water  is  heaviest 
at  a  temperature  of  39.2  degrees,  and  when  heated 
above  or  cooled  below  this  point,  it  expands.  If  this 
were  not  so,  at  the  freezing  point,  the  coldest  water 
would  be  at  the  bottom,  and  the  formation  of  ice  would 
begin  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  rivers,  and  the  entire 
body  of  water  would  finally  become  a  solid  mass  of  ice. 

Does  heated  air  rise  or  fall,  and  why? 


Theory.  53 

It  rises,  because  it  is  lighter  than  cold  air,  that  is, 
it  is  more  expanded. 

In  what  way  is  this  fact  applied  in  plumbing? 

Local  vents  from  water  closets  are  entered  into 
heated  flues,  in  order  that  the  warm  air  rising  in  the 
chimney  may  create  a  draught  or  suction  which  will 
draw  out  through  the  vent  and  into  the  chimney,  the 
foul  odors  of  the  water  closet.  It  applies  in  ventilation 
also. 

Is  hot  water  lighter  or  heavier  than  cold  water,  and 
why? 

It  is  lighter,  because  when  heated  it  is  more  ex- 
panded. 

In  what  way  is  this  fact  applied  in  plumbing? 

The  heated  water  being  lighter  than  the  cold,  nat- 
urally rises.  This  gives  us  the  fundamental  principle 
of  all  circulation  work. 

What  is  a  vacuum? 

A  vacuum  is  a  portion  of  space  from  which  the  air 
has  been  entirely  exhausted. 

How  may  a  vacuum  be  formed  in  plumbing  work? 

A  stoppage  in  the  waste  of  a  fixture  may  cause  the 
waste  to  back  up  and  fill  the  pipe.  When  it  runs  out  it 
may  go  with  a  sufficient  rapidity  to  exhaust  the  air 
and  produce  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  waste,  resulting 
in  syphonage.  One  or  more  fixtures  may  throw  enough 
waste  suddenly  into  a  waste  pipe  to  nearly  fill  it,  and 
as  this  volume  of  water  flows  by  a  branch  waste  pipe 
serving  another  fixture,  the  air  in  that  branch  may  be 
exhausted,  forming  a  partial  vacuum.  In  fact,  in  every 
case  where  syphonage  of  traps  occurs,  or  the  syphon- 
age  of  boilers,  a  vacuum  must  have  been  formed,  and 
usually  in  some  such  manner  as  we  have  just  shown. 

What  is  evaporation? 

It  is  the  slow  passage  of  a  liquid  into  the  form  of 
vapor. 

What  causes  increase  evaporation? 

Increase  of  temperature,  increased  exposure  of  sur- 
face, and  wind  blowing  over  the  surface. 


54  Theory. 

In  what  way  is  the  effect  of  evaporation  felt  on  the 
plumbing  system? 

In  the  evaporation  of  trap  seals. 

How  does  the  ventilating  system  affect  the  evapora- 
tion of  trap  seals? 

It  increases  it,  by  bringing  in  air  upon  the  seals. 

How  does  the  fresh  air  inlet  affect  the  evaporation 
of  the  seal  of  the  main  trap? 

It  increases  it,  by  bringing  in  air  upon  the  seal. 

Which  is  more  affected  by  evaporation,  the  drum 
trap  or  the  S  trap? 

The  drum  trap  is  affected  to  a  less  dangerous  de- 
gree, for  its  seal  is  usually  greater,  and,  in  addition, 
the  vent  taken  from  the  drum  trap  usually  brings  in 
the  air  upon  the  seal  in  a  less  direct  manner. 

What  is  condensation?  . 

Condensation  is  the  passage  of  a  body  from  the  va- 
porous to  the  liquid  state.  It  is  the  opposite  of  the 
action  of  evaporation. 

What  provisions  are  made  necessary  on  the  plumb- 
ing system  because  of  condensation? 

All  fixture  vents  should  pitch  toward  the  traps  which 
they  serve,  and  the  main  line  of  vent  should  be  carried 
into  the  stack  below  the  lowest  fixture,  in  order  that 
the  collection  of  condensation  may  be  carried  off. 

What  is  distillation? 

It  is  the  separation  of  two  liquids  from  each  other, 
or  the  separation  of  a  liquid  and  substances  which  it 
holds  in  solution.  Distillation  is  formed  by  heating 
the  liquid  and  condensing  the  vapor  which  is  formed. 

What  is  meant  by  hydraulics? 

Hydraulics  is  the  conducting  and  raising  of  water 
through  pipes. 

What  laws  govern  the  pressure  of  liquids? 

i.  Pressure  exerted  upon  a  liquid  is  transmitted  un- 
diminished  in  all  directions,  and  acts  with  the  same 


Theory.  55 

force  on  all  equal  surfaces,  and  at  right  angles  to  those 
surfaces. 

2.  The  pressure  at  each  level  of  a  liquid  is  propor- 
tional to  its  depth. 

3.  With   different   liquids   and   the   same   depth,  the 
pressure  is  proportional  to  the  density  of  the  liquid. 

4.  The  pressure  is  the  same  at  all  points  on  any 
given  level  of  a  liquid. 

What  is  the  buoyancy  of  a  liquid? 

The  pressure  of  the  upper  layers  of  a  body  of  liquid 
on  the  lower  parts  causes  the  latter  to  exert  an  equal 
reactive  force  in  an  upward  direction.  This  is  called 
the  buoyancy  of  the  liquid. 

Does  the  pressure  of  a  liquid  depend  on  the  shape 
of  the  vessel  which  contains  it? 
It  does  not. 
What  is  fluid  friction? 

In  flowing  over  any  surface,  for  instance  the  sides  of 
pipe,  a  fluid  meets  with  more  or  less  resistance  from 
the  surface.  This  resistance  is  known  as  friction. 

What  are  the  laws  which  govern  the  friction  of 
fluids? 

1.  Friction    does    not    depend    in    the    least    on    the 
pressure  of  the  fluid  upon  the  surface  over  which  it  is 
flowing. 

2.  Friction  is  proportional  to  the  area  of  the  sur- 
face. 

3.  At  a  low  velocity  (not  more  than  one  inch  per 
second  for  water),  friction  increases  with  tjie  velocity 
of  the  liquid. 

4.  Friction  increases  with  the  roughness  of  the  sur- 
face. 

5.  Friction  increases  with  the  density  of  the  liquid. 

Is  the  friction  of  water  greater  in  small  or  in  large 
pipes,  and  why? 

Friction  is  greater  comparatively,  in  the  small  pipe, 
for  a  greater  proportion  of  the  water  comes  in  contact 
with  the  sides  of  the  pipe  than  in  the  case  of  the  large 
pipe. 


56  Theory. 

How  does  the  compressibility  of  air  and  water  com- 
pare? 

Air  is  extremely  compressible,  while  water  is  almost 
incompressible. 

Tn  what  way  is  the  compressibility  of  air  made  use 
of  in  plumbing? 

In  the  operation  of  air  chambers. 

In  what  way  is  the  incompressibility  of  water  made 
use  of? 

In  the  operation  of  the  hydraulic  ram. 
What  is  capillary  attraction? 

Capillary  attraction  is  the  power  which  liquids  have 
of  rising  in  very  small  tubes  to  a  height  above  the  level 
of  the  liquid  in  which  such  tubes  are  dipped. 

In  what  kind  of  tubes  will  capillary  attraction  take 
place? 

Only  in  tubes  which  the  given  liquid  will  moisten. 

Why  will  not  capillary  attraction  take  place  in  large 
tubes? 

Because  in  the  large  tube  there  is  proportionately  a 
less  amount  of  surface  in  contact  with  the  water,  and  in 
addition,  there  is  a  much  heavier  body  of  water  which 
this  force  of  attraction  must  lift. 

Give  common  examples  of  capillary  attraction. 

The  absorption  of  water  by  sugar  and  sand,  the  ris- 
ing of  sap  in  trees,  the  taking  up  of  water  by  the 
sponge,  etc. 

How  may  capillary  attraction  endanger  the  trap 
seal? 

If  pieces  of  lint,  sponge,  or  rags  lodge  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  hang  over  the  dip  of  the  trap  into  the  seal, 
unless  soon  renewed,  the  seal  will  be  carried  away  drop 
by  drop. 

Why  does  water  that  has  been  heated  freeze  more 
readily  than  cold  water? 

Because  by  heating  the  water  the  air  has  been  driven 
out. 


Theory.  57 

Of  what  is  water  composed,  and  what  are  the  pro- 
portions? 

Water  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen;  one 
part  oxygen,  two  parts  hydrogen. 

What  other  points  are  noticeable  in  pure  water? 

It  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  free  from  odor. 

At  what  degree  does  water  reach  its  greatest  den- 
sity? 

At  39.2  degrees.  It  expands  from  this  point,  whether 
it  be  colder  or  hotter. 

At  what  temperature  does  water  freeze? 

At  32  degrees. 

At  what  temperature  does  boiling  begin? 

At  212  degrees. 

Does  water  expand  in  freezing? 

It  does. 

What  force  is  exerted  by  frost? 

A  force  of  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Name  some  freezing  mixture. 

Two  parts  of  pounded  ice  and  one  part  of  common 
salt. 

Why  does  the  presence  o*  oil  in  water  prevent 
freezing? 

Oil  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and  prevents  heat 
from  leaving  the  water. 

Why  does  water  burst  a  vessel  by  freezing  as  well 
as  by  heating? 

At  certain  temperatures  of  heat  and  cold,  water  ex- 
pands. 

Will  water  absorb  gases,  and  under  what  conditions 
is  absorption  greatest? 

Water  will  absorb  gases,  and  to  the  greatest  extent 
when  the  pressure  of  the  gas  upon  the  water  is  great- 
est, and  when  the  temperature  is  lowest,  for  the  elastic 
force  of  the  gas  is  then  less. 


58  Theory. 

Why  is  water  called  hard? 

Because  it  is  charged  with  foreign  matter  and  will 
not  readily  dissolve  substances  immersed  in  it. 

What  makes  water  hard? 

Generally  from  being  impregnated  with  sulphate  of 
lime.  There  are  other  impurities  taken  from  the  earth 
that  have  a  similar  effect 

Why  is  rain  water  soft? 

Because  it  is  not  impregnated  with  the  salts  of  the 
earth. 

What  is  the  object  of  filters? 

Filters   are   designed   to   clear   and   purify  the   water 

of  any  foreign  substance  that  may  be  in  it.  The  most 

effective  filters   are   of  manufactured  stone,  the  water 
being  forced  through  them  under  pressure. 

Why  does  water  take  a  spiral  motion  when  running? 

Because  in  rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  pipe,  it 
is  diverted  from  the  forward  motion,  while  the  water 
in  the  center  of  the  pipe  flows  faster,  there  being  less 
friction  there. 

What  is  specific  gravity? 

Specific  gravity  is  the  relative  weight  of  one  body  to 
another,  which  is  taken  as  a  standard.  For  solids  and 
liquids,  water  is  the  standard.  For  gases,  air  is  the 
standard. 

Of  what  is  air  composed,  and  in  what  proportions 
do  those  elements  exist? 

Air  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen;  about  one- 
fifth  oxygen  and  four-fifths  nitrogen.  It  also  contains 
a  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Why  is  it  necessary  that  there  should  be  so  much 
more  nitrogen  than  oxygen  in  the  air,  when  nitrogen 
is  detrimental  to  life? 

It  is  necessary  in  order  to  dilute  the  oxygen.  Other- 
wise fires  would  burn  out  too  quickly,  life  would  be  too 
rapidly  exhausted,  etc. 


Theory.  59 

What  is  the  effect  on  animal  life  of  oxygen  and  nit* 
rogen? 

Oxygen  tends  to  assist  and  preserve  life,  while  nitro- 
gen destroys  it. 

How  much  air  is  consumed  by  a  person  in  one  hour? 

A  human  being  consumes  about  15  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  hour. 

What  is  centrifugal  force? 

It  is  that  force  which  tends  to  make  the  particles  of 
an  object  that  is  revolving  fly  away  from  its  circum- 
ference. - 

How  is  centrifugal  force  applied  in  plumbing? 

In  the  centrifugal  trap.  The  inlet  being  taken  off  as 
near  a  tangent  as  possible  to  the  body  of  the  trap,  gives 
the  waste  a  swirling  motion  which  thoroughly  scours 
the  trap. 

What  is  gravitation? 

The  natural  force  which  tends  to  draw  everything 
toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 

What  is  fusion? 

The  passage  of  a  body  from  a  solid  into  a  liquid 
state,  as,  for  instance,  the  melting  of  lead. 

What  is  a  flux? 

A  substance  or  mixture  used  to  help  the  joining  of 
two  metals,  as  rosin,  borax,  etc. 

What  is  an  alloy? 

Any  compound  of  two  or  more  metals,  as*  copper  and 
zinc,  to  form  brass. 

What  is  superheated  steam? 

It  is  steam  removed  from  contact  with  water,  and 
heated  until  it  resembles  a  gas,  when  it  becomes  dan- 
gerous. 

Describe  the  principle  of  circulation. 

To  illustrate,  we  will  take  a  piece  of  ice,  and  place  it 
so  that  it  is  exposed  to  heat.  We  would  call  the  ice 
solid  matter,  but  if  we  could  magnify  it  or  any  other 


60  Theory. 

substance  sufficiently,  we  would  find  it  composed  of  in- 
numerable small  particles  or  molecules,  each  one  in 
constant  motion.  Now,  as  the  ice  is  heated,  these  mole- 
cules commence  to  expand,  and  the  vibrations  increase 
in  rapidity.  In  a  short  time  these  vibrations  increase 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  particles  no  longer  hold  to- 
gether, but  separate  from  the  solid,  and  form  water. 
As  the  heat  continues,  expansion  also  continues,  each 
heated  molecule  striving  to  rise,  which  of  course,  forces 
the  colder  molecules  to  drop,  and  fill  the  space  thus  left 
vacant.  Up  to  this  point,  the  action  has  been  exactly 
what  takes  place  in  the  circulation  of  hot  water.  At 
last,  however,  the  water  has  become  so  heated  that  ex- 
pansion is  even  stronger  than  atmospheric  pressure, 
the  molecules  separate  from  the  original  mass,  and 
being  lighter  now  than  the  air  itself,  pass  off  in  the 
form  of  steam.  Being  lighter  than  the  air,  they  of 
course  rise,  and  here  again  we  have  circulation,  that  is, 
circulation  of  steam.  These  principles  then,  underlie 
all  circulation  work. 

What  should  be  the  relative  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  the  hot  and  cold  particles  of  water  to 
create  a  practical  circulation? 

Seven  degrees. 

Explain  the  bursting  of  lead  pipe  by  frost. 

Water  expands  from  39.2  degrees  F.  until  it  reaches 
the  boiling  point.  Therefore  water  is  at  its  greatest 
density  at  39.2  degrees  F.  It  also  expands  in  cooling 
until  it  reaches  32  degrees  F.  The  water  will  then  re- 
main at  32  degrees,  and  will  gradually  solidify  until  all 
of  the  latent  heat  is  extracted,  when  we  have  ice,  the 
water  having  expanded  about  9  per  cent,  during  solid- 
ification. Below  this  temperature  the  ice  contracts  in 
volume.  This  being  the  fact,  in  time  it  releases  its 
hold  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pipe,  and  the  water  still 
remaining  in  a  liquid  state,  works  its  way  into  this 
space.  This  again  expands  as  before,  and  so  on,  until 
finally  the  pipe,  which  can  no  longer  stand  the  strain, 
hursts. 

Why  does  one  frosted  pipe  burst  while  another  does 
not? 

For  the  reason  that  the  ice  in  one  is  allowed  to  ex- 
pand, while  in  the  other  it  is  not.  For  example,  we  will 


Theory.  61 

suppose  there  is  a  section  of  exposed  pipe  a  few  inches 
in  length,  and  the  water  in  this  exposed  section  freezes. 
The  result  is  that  it  expands  lengthwise  and  no  damage 
is  done.  Now  suppose  there  are  two  exposed  sections 
a  foot  apart.  Both  sections  being  frozen,  there  is  no 
chance  for  the  water  between  to  expand  lengthwise  as 
it  freezes,  and  the  force  is  necessarily  exerted  against 
the  sides  of  the  pipe.  This  would  hold  good  where  an 
entire  length  of  pipe  was  frozen.  Some  portions  of  the 
water  solidifying  quicker  than  the  others,  prevents  any 
expansion  lengthwise  of  the  pipe,  and  in  consequence, 
the  expansive  force  is  exerted  sidewise,  and  results  in 
the  bursting  of  the  pipe. 

What  is  the  effect  of  carbonic  acid  gas  or  sewer  gas 
on  lead  and  iron? 

This  gas  acts  chemically  on  both  metals,  especially 
on  lead,  thereby  destroying  them  after  a  time. 


J 


CONNECTIONS  FOR  I,INE  OF  REFRIGERATORS. 
(62) 


SYPHON  AGE. 


Explain  the  syphon. 

The  syphon  consists  primarily  of  a  bent  tube,  one 
arm  being  longer  than  the  other.  The  syphon  is  used 
for  transferring  liquids  from  a  high  point  to  a  lower 
point.  In  order  to  start  the  syphon,  the  air  in  the  long 
arm  must  first  be  exhausted.  As  soon  as  this  vacuum 
'  is  formed,  atmospheric  pressure  forces  the  water  up 
the  short  arm  and  into  the  long  arm,  through  which  it 
•passes  out.  This  action  continues  unless  broken  by 
bther  means,  until  the  short  arm  no  longer  dips  into 
the  water. 

may  the  action  of  the  syphon  be  destroyed? 


By  admitting  air  into  the  long  arm  of  the  tube,  not 
further  from  the  crown  of  the  tube  than  the  length  of 
the  short  arm. 

In  what  way  is  syphonage  a  great  benefit  in  plumb-   V 
ing  work? 

It  is  the  principle  underlying  the  action  of  many 
plumbing  fixtures  and  devices. 

In  what  ways  is  syphonage  a  detriment  to  plumbing     y 
work? 

In  the  syphonage  of  traps  and  boilers. 

Name  different  plumbing  devices  depending  on  sy- 
phonage for  their  action. 

The  syphon  water  closet,  the  waste-preventive  urinal, 
the  syphon  lavatory,  the  syphon  tank,  the  automatic 
tank,  the  syphon  cesspool,  and  the  syphon  system  of 
water  supply,  are  among  the  principal  devices. 

Show  in  what  way  syphonage  is  applied  to  the  sy- 
phon jet  water  closet. 

A  separate  passage  runs  from  the  flush  entrance  to 
the  bottom  of  the  closet  trap.  Through  this  passage 
a  powerful  jet  is  forced,  whenever  the  closet  is  flushed. 
This  jet  sends  a  quantity  of  water  quickly  into  the  out- 
let or  long  arm  of  the  trap,  where  it  is  retarded  by  a 

(63) 


64  Syphonage. 

bend  in  the  outlet  leg.  These  two  causes  fill  the  long 
arm  full  of  water,  and  as  this  passes  out,  the  air  is  ex- 
hausted as  we  have  seen  above,  atmospheric  pressure 
sends  the  contents  of  the  closet  bowl  over,  and  we 
have  syphonage. 

Explain  the  syphon  tank. 

At  the  base  of  the  syphon  tank  valve,  there  is  a  large 
flap  valve  connected  with  the  tank  lever.  When  this 
lever  is  pulled,  enough  water  quickly  enters  the  flush 
pipe  to  fill  it,  the  air  is  expelled,  and  the  syphon  is 
started,  continuing  until  the  end  of  the  short  arm  is 
>ut  of  water. 

Describe  different  ways  in  which  fixture  traps  may 
be  syphoned. 

The  outlet  beyond  the  trap  may  have  little  pitch,  so 
that  the  waste  sets  back  and  fills  up  the  pipe.  When 
this  finally  moves  out,  it  forces  the  air  put,  leaving  a 
partial  vacuum  behind,  with  the  result  that  atmospheric 
pressure  forces  over  the  contents  of  the  trap.  This 
same  result  may  occur  when  there  is  a  slight  stoppage 
in  the  waste  outlet.  When  this  gives  way  and  the 
water  passes  out,  syphonage  is  liable  to  occur.  Syphon- 
age may  also  occur  from  the  wasting  of  other  fixtures 
past  the  entrance  of  a  fixture  waste.  If  the  amount  of 
waste  passing  through  the  main  is  sufficient  to  partially 
expel  the  air,  a  partial  vacuum  will  be  formed,  and  sy- 
phonage will  occur. 

How  may  a  boiler  be  syphoned? 

The  danger  of  boiler  syphonage  applies  chiefly  to  the 
pressure  boiler.  We  may  consider  the  cold  water  sup- 
ply from  the  street  main  to  the  boiler  as  the  long  arm 
to  the  syphon.  Now,  if  there  is  a  bad  break  in  the 
street,  the  water,  if  not  quickly  shut  off,  is  liable  to  run 
out  of  the  supply  pipe  to  the  boiler.  This  leaves  a  par- 
tial vacuum  behind,  and  syphonage  occurs. 

Explain  how  syphonage  may  be  applied  in  procuring 
a  water  supply. 

In  the  first  place,  the  spring,  pond,  or  other  supply 
must  be  at  a  point  higher  than  the  point  at  which  the 
water  is  to  be  delivered.  Then,  with  the  short  arm 
dipping  into  the  source,  and  the  line  of  pipe  to  the 
point  of  delivery  acting  as  the  long  arm,  the  syphon 


Syphonage.  65 

will  act  as  a  smaller  one  would.  In  starting  it,  the  air 
in  the  long  arm  must  be  exhausted,  and  if  there  are 
rises  in  the  ground  that  the  pipe  must  follow,  air  cocks 
should  be  placed  at  the  crown  of  each  rise  of  the  pipe, 
so  that  by  their  occasional  use,  air  lock  can  be  de- 
stroyed. 

Can  a  liquid  be  syphoned  from  a  lower  to  a  higher 
point  or  not,  and  why? 

It  cannot,  for  the  reason  that  when  both  arms  of 
the  syphon  are  full,  the  contents  of  the  long  arm  being 
heavier,  will  not  be  drawn  over  by  the  weight  in  the 
smaller  arm.  In  other  words,  the  suction,  by  means  of 
which  syphonage  acts,  will  always  be  down  the  long 
arm,  not  up. 

How  is  syphonage  prevented  in  plumbing  work? 

By  ventilation,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called,  by 
back  or  counter  venting. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  intermittent  syphon. 

The  automatic  syphon  tank  is  nothing  more  than  an 
intermittent  syphon,  the  great  difference  between  dif- 
ferent makes  being  found  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
water  is  retarded  in  the  long  arm  of  the  syphon. 

Explain  the  action  of  the  automatic  syphon  tank. 

In  the  intermittent  syphon,  the  supply  is  constant, 
and  when  it  has  reached  the  proper  height,  the  water 
falls  over  the  crown\of  the  syphon,  down  into  the  long 
arm,  where  the  water  is  retarded  sufficiently  to  produce 
syphonage.  This  continues  until  the  short  arm  is  out 
of  water.  The  supply  being  continuous,  the  tank  in  a 
given  time  fills,  and  syphonage  again  acts,. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
What  is  a  dead  end? 

A  dead  end  is  a  part  of  the  drainage  system  that  is 
without  ventilation.  If  the  entire  plumbing  of  a  house 
is  without  ventilation,  the  entire  system  may  be  con- 
sidered a  dead  end.  Strictly  speaking,  we  also  consider 
as  a  dead  end  an  unventilated  projection  of  main  waste 
pipe  beyond  the  entrance  of  the  branch. 

What  is  a  tell-tale  pipe,  what  is  its  object,  and  where 
should  it  be  carried  to? 

A  tell-tale  pipe  is  usually  used  where  a  storage  tank 
is  used.  It  runs  up  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  top 
of  the  tank,  with  its  lower  end  dripping  into  a  sink  or 
other  place  that  is  exposed  to  view.  When  water  has 
been  pumped  into  the  tank  in  sufficient  quantity,  it 
overflows  down  this  tell-tale  pipe,  showing  to  the 
operator  of  the  pump  that  the  tank  has  been  sufficiently 
filled. 

What  is  a  by-pass? 

A  by-pass  on  the  drainage  system  permits  the  air 
from  the  sewer  or  cesspool  to  evade  the  seal  of  the  trap 
by  passing  around  it  and  escaping  into  the  room,  in- 
itead  of  passing  through  it. 

Why  should  all  plumbing  be  open  work? 

When  enclosed  there  is  more  danger  of  leakages  re- 
maining undiscovered,  there  is  always  a  collection  of 
filth  in  corners  and  about  the  sheathing,  no  matter  how 
much  care  is  taken,  and  the  air  confined  in  these  en- 
closures is  very  apt  to  be  impure. 

Why  are  the  lead  and  iron  pipes  of  a  ventilated 
plumbing  system  longer  lived  than  those  of  an  unven- 
til?ted  system? 

The  ventilation  prevents  the  accumulation  of  gas, 
carrying  it  off  constantly  into  the  air. 

What  is  meant  by  air  lock? 

The  confining  of  air  between  two  traps.  Air  lock 
may  occur  both  on  the  drainage  and  on  the  hot  and 
cold  water  supply  system. 

(66) 


Miscellaneous.  67 

How  should  a  refrigerator  waste  be  connected? 

A  refrigerator  should  never  be  connected  directly 
with  soil  or  waste  pipes,  even  though  trapped,  but 
should  drip  into  an  open  pan  with  an  air  space  between 
pan  and  refrigerator.  This  pan  should  then  be  trapped 
and  counter-vented  before  entering  a  soil  or  waste  pipe. 

What  extra  precaution  should  be  used  on  refrigerator 
work,  in  case  of  evaporation  of  the  trap  seal,  when  the 
refrigerator  is  not  in  use? 

A  trap  screw  should  be  soldered  into  the  bottom  of 
the  pan,  to  be  closed  during  the  months  when  the  re- 
frigerator is  not  in  use. 

How  are  Ts  read? 

Hold  the  T  with  the  branch  up,  and  the  large  end  to 
the  left.  Then  read  the  large  end  first,  small  end  next, 
and  branch  last,  as  ix^x^  inch. 

What  is  the  principle  of  the  oxyhydrogen  and  airo- 
hydrogen  flame? 

These  flames  are  produced  by  the  mixture  of  proper 
proportions  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases,  which  mix- 
ture is  highly  explosive.  The  most  intense  flame  is  the 
oxyhydrogen,  but  for  most  work  the  airohydrogen 
flame  is  all  that  is  necessary.  It  is  made  by  forcing  air 
into  the  supply  of  hydrogen  at  a  point  near  where  it  is 
ignited,  there  being  sufficient  oxygen  in  the  air  to  pro- 
duce the  explosive  result. 

How  can  hydrogen  be  produced? 

Mix  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  with  about  five  or  six 
parts  of  water,  always  pouring  the  acid  into  the  water, 
rather  than  the  water  into  the  acid,  as  there  is  danger 
of  its  flying  into  a  person's  face,  if  wrongly  handled. 
Into  this  mixture  put  scraps  of  zinc.  The  chemical 
action  between  these  two  substances  very  soon  pro- 
duces the  hydrogen  gas.  In  using  this  gas,  provision 
should  always  be  made  for  expansion.  Otherwise  the 
gas  is  dangerous,  and  liable  to  burst  the  vessel  con- 
taining it.  It  is  a  gas  that  should  be  handled  with  great 
care  at  all  times. 

How  should  a  gas  meter  be  read? 


68  Miscellaneous. 

From  the  dials  always  take  the  figures  the  index 
hands  have  passed.  Assuming  on  the  high  dial  the 
hand  is  between  3  and  4,  on  the  second  dial,  between 
4  and  5,  on  the  third  dial,  between  8  and  9,  you  would 
read  348;  adding  two  cyphers  for  the  hundreds,  it  would 
read  34,800.  To  ascertain  the  amount  of  gas  consumed 
in  a  given  time,  deduct  the  previous  register  (as  given 
on  the  gas  bill),  from  the  present  register, 

Why  are  wooden  sinks  and  wash  trays  prohibited  in 
most  cities? 

They  are  considered  unsanitary,  as  they  soon  com- 
mence to  decay  and  absorb  the  water.  If  water  is  not 
kept  in  them  constantly,  they  are  liable  to  shrink  and 
leak. 

Why  is  a  pipe  that  has  been  heated,  more  easily  bent 
than  when  cold? 

The  heat  expands  the  particles  or  molecules  of  which 
the  metal  is  composed,  and  there  being  less  density, 
they  pass  by  each  other  more  easily. 

What  is  the  danger  in  overheating  a  pipe? 

Overheating  expands  the  metal  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  particles  either  lose  their  strength  or  are  con- 
sumed by  the  heat. 

What  is  carbonic  acid  gas? 

It  is  the  gas  most  dangerous  to  health,  it  being  most 
common,  and  should  be  guarded  against  by  means  of 
proper  ventilation.  It  being  one  of  the  heavy  gases,  it 
naturally  falls,  and  will  be  found  in  the  lower  strata  of 
air  in  a  room.  For  this  reason  the  ventilation  of  public 
buildings  and  living  rooms  should  be  f*  om  the  lower 
part  of  the  room  near  the  floor.  By  placing  the  venti- 
lation near  the  floor,  we  not  only  assist  in  correcting 
this  evil,  but  by  drawing  in  the  cold  air  from  the  lower 
section  of  the  room,  the  heated  air  of  the  upper  section!* 
is  forced  to  fall,  to  fill  this  space.  Thus  a  proper  circu- 
lation of  air  in  the  room  is  established.  Years  P^O, 
when  houses  were  heated  from  fireplaces,  hearKches 
were  seldom  known,  which  was  largely  due  to  this  same 
manner  of  ventilation. 

How  does  cold  act  upon  sewage? 

It  causes  the  grease  contained  in  the  sewage  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  liquid  portion.  The  grease  being  lighter 
than  the  water,  naturally  rises  to  the  surface. 


Miscellaneous.  69 

In  what  plumbing  device  is  this  principle  put  to  use? 

In  the  grease  trap. 

How  should  a  tank  be  made  which  is  to  hold  acid? 

A  tank  that  is  to  hold  acid  continuously,  should  be 
made  of  lead,  burned  together,  and  not  soldered,  as  in 
time  the  acid  destroys  the  solder. 

How  many  cubic  inches  does  a  gallon  contain? 

A  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

What  is  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  water? 

8.33  pounds. 

What  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water? 

62.5  pounds. 

How  many  gallons  of  water  are  contained  in  one 
cubic  foot? 

7.5  gallons. 

What  are  proper  heights  for  setting  plumbing  fix- 
tures? 

Kitchen  sink,  2  ft.  7  in.;  wash  trays,  2  ft.  8  or  9  in.; 
wash  bowl  slab,  2  ft.  6l/2  in. 


PRACTICAL  SUBJECTS. 

How  would  you  get  at  a  leak  in  a  lead  pipe,  if  the  leak 
was  underneath  or  on  the  back  side  of  the  pipe? 

A  good  way  is  to  set  two  lamps  under  the  pipe  some 
six  feet  apart,  if  possible,  and  when  the  pipe  has  be- 
come hot  so  that  the  particles  of  the  lead  are  expand- 
ed, roll  the  pipe  over,  bringing  the  leak  on  top,  where 
it  can  easily  be  repaired. 

How  can  lead  pipe  that  has  been  cut  in  two,  be 
lengthened  so  that  there  will  be  no  need  of  putting  in 
a  short  piece  of  pipe? 

Form  as  small  coils  as  the  pipe  will  permit,  one 
coil  upon  another.  After  the  pipe  has  been  coiled 
tightly  in  this  form,  straighten  it  out,  and  it  will  be 
found  to  have  gained  considerably  in  length.  To  make 
it  still  longer,  repeat  this  operation.  It  should  be  'un- 
derstood that  the  coil  is  not  made  in  the  shape  of  a 
spiral  spring,  but  flat,  in  the  form  of  a  mat. 

How  would  you  bend  a  piece  of  i^4  or  *TA  inch  lead 
pipe  without  the  aid  of  sand  or  pipe  bender? 

With  a  dresser,  flatten  the  pipe  considerably  and 
carefully  bend  it  so  that  the  flattened  sides  are  parallel 
with  the  direction  in  which  the  pipe  is  bent.  Flatten 
the  pipe  with  the  dresser  wherever  it  shows  signs  of 
cockling,  and  having  secured  the  proper  bend,  smooth 
the  pipe  where  rough  with  the  dresser. 

How  can  a  lead  lining  to  a  tank  be  soldered,  if  the 
wooden  bottom  is  wet? 

Lead  is  a  metal  that  oxidizes  very  rapidly,  unless 
covered  by  some  substance  which  will  exclude  the  air. 
As  an  example,  after  scraping  a  piece  of  lead  bright, 
breathe  upon  it  and  it  becomes  discolored  at  once,  on 
account  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  with  which  the  breath 
is  charged.  The  moisture  from  the  hand  has  a  like 
effect,  as  well  as  steam  from  wood  which  is  wet.  In 
soldering  over  wet  wood,  it  will  be  found  of  great  help 
to  insert  a  piece  of  paper  between  the  wooden  bottom 
and  the  lining,  which  absorbs  the  moisture  caused  by 
the  heat. 

(70) 


72  Practical  Subjects. 

How  can  lead  pipe  be  protected  from  damage  by  rats 
between  floors? 

A  good  way  is  to  roll  up  sheets  of  tin,  like  conductor 
pipe,  without  soldering  or  locking  them,  and  simply 
snap  them  around  the  pipe. 

How  can  lead  pipe  be  polished? 

A  good  way,  after  the  work  is  finished,  is  to  rub 
briskly  with  a  piece  of  old  carpet.  This  will  put  a  fine 
polish  onto  the  work. 

How  can  large  lead  pipes  be  bent? 

Fill  the  pipe  with  sand  and  tamp  it  down  well;  then 
heat  the  pipe  to  expand  the  particles  of  lead  before 
bending.  Some  plumbers  heat  the  sand  before  run- 
ning it  into  the  pipe. 

How  can  a  crooked  thread  be  cut  on  iron  pipe? 

Occasionally  one  wishes  to  change  the  direction  of 
the  pipe,  but  not  enough  to  allow  of  a  special  fitting 
being  used.  In  this  case,  cut  the  thread  with  a  loose 
bushing. 

How  is  a  rust  joint  made? 

With  a  mixture  of  the  following  proportions:  5  Ibs. 
iron  filings,  i  oz.  salammoniac,  i  oz.  sulphur;  mix  first 
dry,  and  thin  with  water. 

To  bend  copper  pipes. 

Plug  the  ends  and  fill  the  pipe  with  rosin.  It  can 
then  be  bent.  If  the  pipe  is  large,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
bore  a  hole  in  an  upright  timber,  so  that  the  pipe  will 
fit  loosely,  and  bend  the  pipe  through  this  hole.  Shave 
off  the  sharp  corners  of  the  hole  so  that  it  will  not 
leave  marks  on  the  pipe.  Having  gotten  the  pipe  in 
the  desired  shape,  hold  it  over  a  slow  fire  and  run  the 
rosin  out- 
How  can  a  boiler  which  has  collapsed  be  restored? 

With  an  ordinary  copper  boiler,  by  attaching  the  city 
water,  it  can  be  forced  into  its  original  shape.  Never 
hammer  a  boiler  until  this  has  been  tried.  If  not  suc- 
cessful, then  the  bottom  should  be  taken  out,  and  the 
cylinder  forced  into  shape  on  a  mandril. 


Practical  Subjects.  73 

To  make  a  putty  joint  on  a  leaky  supply  pipe. 

First  have  the  pipe  thoroughly  dry,  and  then  paint 
it  over  with  some  quick  drying  gold  size.  Then  mix 
with  white  lead  sufficient  powdered  red  lead  to  stiffen 
it.  Place  a  layer  of  this  mixture  around  the  pipe, 
three-eights  to  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  and  with 
some  good  strong  cotton  cloth,  which  has  been  painted 
with  the  gold  size,  neatly  bind  the  red  lead  to  the  pipe, 
then  bind  it  securely  with  twine,  commencing  at  the 
end  and  winding  closely  toward  the  center. 

In  case  it  is  necessary  to  cut  a  thread  a  little  smaller 
than  standard,  how  can  it  be  done? 

By  inserting  a  narrow  strip  of  tin  between  the  die 
and  pipe  on  one  side.  This  will  force  the  opposite 
side  of  the  die  to  cut  a  little  deeper. 

How  should  leaking  gas  pipes  be  treated? 

On  new  work,  a  little  ether  is  usually  forced  through 
the  system  by  aid  of  the  force  pump,  and  the  leaks  de- 
tected from  the  odor  of  the  ether,  an  ordinary  gauge 
having  been  previously  attached  and  a  pressure  of  from 
five  to  eight  pounds  been  reached.  On  old  work, 
where  there  is  only  the  gas  present,  the  first  test  of  a 
suspected  joint  would  be  with  a  match  or  candle.  If 
not  successful  in  locating  the  leak,  then  cover  the  joints 
with  a  thick  lather  made  from  shaving  soap.  A  very 
fine  leak  will  soon  cause  a  bubble  to  form  which  lo- 
cates the  leak.  Shaving  soap  is  better  than  common 
soap  on  account  of  its  strength. 

How  can  nickel  pipes  be  set  tight  when  there  are  no 
special  tools  at  hand? 

It  is  always  well  to  have  in  one's  kit  a  number  of 
sizes  of  brass  pipe,  sawed  in  halves,  lengthwise,  and 
about  two  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  On  the  in- 
side of  these  rub  a  little  rosin.  They  can  then  be  put 
around  the  nickle  pipe  and  clasped  with  a  wrench, 
without  defacing  the  polished  work.  If  a  vise  is  handy, 
two  hard  wood  blocks  having  a  groove  in  each  to  fit 
the  pipe,  can  be  used,  rosin  being  first  rubbed  into  the 
groove.  These  blocks  -"should  be  eight  or  ten  inches 
long. 

How  should  a  putty  joint  be  made? 


74  Practical  Subjects. 

Although  not  a  very  desirable  joint  there  are  occa- 
sions when  it  has  to  be  adopted.  Select  a  good  piece 
of  cotton  cloth  about  three  inches  in  width,  and  after  a 
sizeable  joint  of  putty  has  been  formed  around  the 
pipe,  wrap  carefully  with  the  strip  of  cloth,  and  with  a 
piece  of  twine  securely  fasten  both  edges  of  the  joint. 
Now,  having  the  putty  confined  so  that  it  cannot 
squeeze  out  of  either  end,  it  can  be  wound  as  tightly  as 
desired,  and  can  be  left  to  harden. 

How  would  it  be  possible  to  shut  off  the  flow  of 
water  in  a  pipe  which  was  not  supplied  with  a  stop 
cock? 

This  result  might  be  attained  by  freezing  the  water 
in  the  pipe  at  such  point  as  it  was  desired  to  shut  it  off. 
This  can  be  done  by  packing  around  the  pipe  a  mixture 
of  fine  ice  and  salt,  or  by  packing  the  pipe  with  ice,  us- 
ing perhaps  a  bushel  of  it,  and  pouring  onto  this  a  pint 
of  ammonia.  In  a  short  time  the  pipe  will  be  frozen 
solid,  and  after  the  necessary  repairs  have  been  made, 
the  pipe  may  be  thawed  out. 

To  make  a  deep  seal  trap  for  rain  leaders. 

In  trapping  rain  leaders,  a  special  trap  can  be  formed 
with  quarter  bends,  which  will  give  a  much  deeper  seal 
than  the  ordinary  trap.  As  there  is  no  chance  ordi- 
narily to  renew  the  seal  during  a  prolonged  drought, 
this  form  of  trap  would  seem  much  the  safer,  as  the 
seal  of  the  common  trap  often  becomes  broken  from 
evaporation.  The  leader  trap  should  always  be  used 
if  there  is  no  main  trap  provided,  and  each  leader 
should  be  independently  trapped.  This  deep  seal  trap 
may  be  made  by  caulking  together  three  quarter  bends 
if  it  is  a  P  trap,  or  four  quarter  bends  if  it  is  a  running 
trap. 

To  start  a  hard  thread. 

This  can  often  be  accomplished  by  heating  the  fitting 
and  then  running  into  the  thread  a  little  beeswax.  This 
will  penetrate  the  thread  thoroughly  and  usually  enable 
the  joint  to  be  unscrewed. 

Forty-five  degree  measurement. 

To  get  a  45' degree  measurement,  add  to  the  distance 
between  the  centers  of  the  two  parallel  lines  of  pipe,  5 


Practical  Subjects.  75 

inches  for  each  foot  of  such  distance,  and  at  the  same 
rate  for  fractional  parts  of  a  foot.  This  will  give  a 
close  approximation  to  the  true  measurement. 

To  wipe  a  joint  with  paper. . 

In  an  emergency,  when  it  is  impossible  to  procure 
the  regular  wiping  cloth,  a  good  joint  can  be  made 
with  paper.  Fold  the  paper  several  times,  grease  it 
well  with  tallow,  and  with  care  a  fair  joint  may  be 
wiped. 

Paper  lining  for  wiping  cloths. 

If  the  wiping  cloth  is  so  thin  that  the  heat  of  the 
metal   burns   the   hand,   it  is   a   good   idea   to   line   the 
„  cloth  inside  with  paper.     This  will  make  a  good  non- 
conductor, and  will  help  to  keep  the  shape  of  the  cloth. 

To  take  a  dent  out  of  lead  pipe. 

To  take  a  dent  out  of  lead  pipe  that  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  the  drift  plug,  solder  on  securely  to  the  in- 
dentation a  strip  of  lead  or  tin,  and  after  warming  the 
pipe  pull  gently,  being  careful  not  to  pull  out  a  piece  of 
the  pipe.  While  working  out  the  dent  in  this  way,  the 
dresser  may  be  used  to  help  the  work  along. 

To  make  an  insertable  joint  on  a  line  of  soil  pipe. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  break  out  a  section  of 
soil  pipe,  and  there  is  no  chance  to  raise  or  lower  the 
pipe,  cut  off  a  short  piece  of  pipe  of  the  next  larger 
size  than  the  pipe  in  question,  and  into  this  caulk  a 
piece  of  pipe  of  the  same  size 'as  that  broken  out.  The 
larger  size  now  virtually  becomes  a  long  hub,  and  can 
be  slipped  up  onto  the  pipe  above,  and  dropped  down 
into  the  hub  below.  By  being  careful  the  upper  joint 
can  be  securely  caulked. 

To  pour  a  wet  joint  on  soil  pipe. 

Occasionally  it  becomes  necessary  to  pour  what  is 
termed  a  wet  joint.  When  this  occurs,  get  the  joint  as 
near  tight  as  possible  by  driving  home  the  oakum. 
Then  put  into  the  hub  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  rosin. 
Oil  may  be  poured  in  if  the  rosin  is  not  obtainable. 
This  acts  to  prevent  the  hot  metal  from  flying. 

To  finish  lead  pipe  work. 


76  Practical  Subjects. 

Rub  with  fine  sandpaper,  being  careful  to  rub  with 
the  grain  of  the  pipe.  When  this  is  done,  cover  at  once 
with  shellac. 

Wash  tray  cement. 

A  good  strong  cement  for  mending  wash  trays  is 
made  of  litharge  and  glycerine,  made  into  a  paste. 
This  cement,  when  it  sets,  becomes  exceedingly  hard. 

To  connect  pipe  when  short  of  room. 

It  happens  occasionally  that  pipes  have  to  be  put 
in  where  there  is  not  room  enough  for  either  a  union 
or  right  and  left  coupling,  as  for  instance  in  the  mak- 
ing of  some  coils.  In  such  a  case,  saw  an  ordinary 
coupling  in  halves,  and  with  a  file  true  up  one  end  of 
one  of  the  half  couplings.  Then  cut  a  long  thread  on 
the  pipe,  and  after  tapping  out  the  coupling,  screw  it 
onto  the  long  thread,  with  a  gasket  on  the  face  of  the 
half  coupling.  After  screwing  up  the  long  thread  suf- 
ficiently to  get  the  pipe  in  the  right  position,  turn  it 
back,  making  a  tight  connection  at  the  other  end. 
Turning  it  back  is  apt  to  leave  a  questionable  joint  on 
the  long  thread,  which  is  made  tight  by  running  the 
half  coupling  and  gasket  down  onto  the  fitting  that  the 
long  thread  makes  into. 

To  bend  brass  pipe. 

Secure  the  pipe  in  a  vise  between  two  blocks  of  wood 
and  apply  the  torch  at  the  point  where  the  bend  is  to 
be  made.  When  the  pipe  has  been  well  heated,  bend  it 
at  the  proper  angle.  Previous  to  heating  the  pipe,  fill 
it  with  sand  and  plug  the  ends. 

Rubber  cup  for  plaster  of  Paris. 

For  mixing  plaster  of  Paris,  a  rubber  bowl  or  cup 
will  be  found  very  handy,  something  after  the  shape  of 
a  rubber  forcing  cup,  such  as  used  by  plumbers.  After 
using,  the  old  plaster  left  in  the  bowl  is  quickly  cleaned 
off,  merely  by  working  the  rubber. 

To  wipe  a  wet  joint. 

When  everything  is  in  readiness  for  wiping,  plug  the 
ends  of  the  pipe  with  bread.  By  quick  work  a  joint 
can  be  wiped  while  the  bread  is  soaking  ^  up  the  mois- 
ture, the  only  point  being  to  finish  the  joint  before  the 
bread  becomes  saturated.  After  completing  the  joint, 


(77) 


78  Practical  Subjects. 

let  on  the  water,  which  will  quickly  wash  the  bread  out 
of  the  pipe. 

Lead  burning  on  a  small  scale. 

For  lead  burning  on  a  small  scale,  use  a  strong  reser- 
voir holding  from  one  to  two  gallons,  with  a  trap  screw 
soldered  into  it,  through  which  the  reservoir  may  be 
charged.  A  tube  should  be  placed  on  the  upper  part 
of  this  generator  to  which  a  three-eights  inch  rubber 
hose  may  be  attached.  Unless  full  precautions  are 
taken  against  the  confining  of  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
to  the  extent  of  danger,  disastrous  results  may  follow 
the  use  of  crude  apparatus  of  this  kind.  Therefore,  if 
a  regular  gas  generator  cannot  be  obtained,  an  arrange- 
ment in  the  form  of  a  safety  valve  of  simple  construc- 
tion should  be  attached.  This  valve  may  be  weighted 
to  vent  the  reservoir  at  any  desired  pressure,  which  of 
course  should  not  be  /nade  so  high  as  to  present  any 
element  of  danger.  As  another  precautionary  measure, 
the  gas  when  generated  may  be  carried  into  gas  bags 
made  for  the  purpose.  To  the  hose  attach  a  blow  pipe 
such  as  used  by  jewelers. 

Chips  of  either  old  or  new  zinc  are  now  placed 
in  the  reservoir,  after  which  in  some  earthen  vessel  are 
mixed  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  one  part  acid  to  five  or 
six  parts  of  water  being  the  proper  proportion.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  pour  the  acid  into  the  water,  and 
not  the  water  into  the  acid,  as  there  is  danger  of  the 
latter  mixture  flying  into  one's  face.  Pour  this  mixture 
onto  the  zinc.  Hydrogen  gas,  which  is  very  explosive, 
is  at  once  formed,  and  when  mixed  with  oxygen  and 
ignited,  forms  an  intense  flame. 

This  should  usually  be  an  oxyhydrogen  flame,  but  for 
small  work  an  airohydrogen  flame  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient. This  is  obtained  by  the  mixture  of  the  hydrogen 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  as  it  issues  from  the  blow 
pipe. 

The  flame  issues  in  a  fine  needle-like  form,  and  the 
process  of  burning  is  accomplished  by  playing  the 
flame  on  the  solder  which  is  held  over  the  seam  to  be 
burned.  The  object  in  lead  burning  is  to  form  a  tank 
or  vessel  entirely  of  lead  without  the  use  of  solder  con- 
taining tin,  which  is  destroyed  by  many  acids. 

As  a  solder  for  lead  burning,  use  strips  of  sheet  lead, 
one-half  inch  in  width,  scraped  bright,  and  greased  with 
tallow. 


Practical  Subjects.  79 

Do  not  attempt  to  light  the  gas  until  the  pressure 
has  driven  the  air  out  of  the  reservoir.  In  this  work, 
do  not  attempt  to  burn  corner  seams,  but  shape  the 
lining  so  that  the  seams  come  squarely  on  the  bottom 
or  on  the  sides.  It  need  scarcely  be  added,  that  appa- 
ratus especially  constructed  for  the  purpose,  is  prefer- 
able to  that  which  has  been  described,  and  that  the 
above  simply  represents  a  method  in  which  small  work 
can  be  done  which  will  not  warrant  a  great  outlay  for 
apparatus. 

Lead  burning  with  a  soldering  copper. 

When  the  hydrogen  flame  cannot  be  had,  lead  can  be 
burned  together  with  the  soldering  copper  oh  small 
work.  Use  a  32  oz.  hatchet  copper  and  heat  to  a  cherry 
red.  Retin  the  copper  as  fast  as  the  tinning  burns  off. 
Use  narrow  strips  of  sheet  lead  well  greased  with  tal- 
low, just  as  when  burning  with  the  hydrogen  flame. 

To  repair  a  leak  in  a  lead  pipe  where  the  water  cannot 
be  wholly  shut  off,  and  there  is  no  pressure. 

A  little  back  of  the  point  where  the  joint  is  fo  be 
made,  prick  a  slanting  hole  through  the  pipe  with  a 
marking  awl.  Through  this  hole  run  a  small  wire  out 
through  the  end  opening  of  the  pipe.  To  this  wire  fas- 
ten a  string,  and  pull  through  the  hole  quite  a  quantity 
of  string,  which  should  be  well  greased  with  tallow. 
Then  lay  this  string  back  and  forth  or  coil  it  evenly 
about  the  fingers  so  that  it  will  not  snarl.  When 
enough  is  thus  coiled  to  fill  the  pipe,  push  it  into  the 
opening,  and  tamp  it  until  it  plugs  the  opening  as  well 
as  possible,  after  which  the  joint  can  be  wiped.  After 
the  wiping  is  finished,  take  the  string  where  it  comes 
through  the  hole,  give  it  a  sharp  twitch  which  will 
break  up  the  plug  of  string,  and  allow  its  antire  length 
to  be  pulled  out.  After  this  beat  the  hole  up  tight  and 
put  on  a  drop  of  solder.  By  pricking  the  hole  slanting, 
the  string  can  be  more  easily  pulled  out  and  the  water 
will  not  fly  out  in  one's  face. 

To  string  lead  pipe. 

To  string  lead  pipe  overhead,  it  is  well  to  erect  a 
temporary  stage,  directly  under  the  line  of  pipe,  of 
barrels  and  planks.  Then  let  the  helper  take  the  coil 
of  pipe  between  his  knees,  and  uncoil  only  as  fast  as 
the  plumber  can  clip  it  up,  the  helper  at  the  same  time 


80  Practical  Subjects. 

taking  the  weight  of  the  pipe.  This  enables  the  plumb- 
er to  keep  his  line  straight,  and  kinks  in  the  pipe  are 
thereby  avoided.  It  is  much  harder  to  make  a  good 
looking  job  after  the  pipe  has  become  kinked  than  it  is 
to  keep  it  right  by  the  above  method. 

To  stop  a  leak  on  the  bottom  side  of  a  lead  pipe. 

First  scrape  the  pipe  bright,  and  rub  on  tallow.  Then 
pour  from  the\  ladle  onto  the  wiping  cloth  some  fine 
solder  heated  quite  hot,  and  quickly  press  the  melted 
metal  up  against  the  leak.  Previous  to  applying  the 
solder,  have  the  pipe  well  heated. 

To  remedy  a  faulty  draught. 

It  will  often  be  found  that  where  stoves  enter  the 
same  flue  on  different  floors,  the  stove  on  the  first  floor 
has  an  excellent  draught,  while  the  one  above  will  have 
almost  none.  This  is  caused  by  the  stove  on  the  first 
floor  getting  the  advantage  and  cutting  off  the  draught 
of  the  stove  above.  To  remedy  this  trouble,  allow  the 
upper  pipe  to  go  to  the  back  of  the  chimney,  cutting  off 
the-4op  part  of  the  pipe  in  the  chimney.  This  splits  the 
current  from  the  lower  stove,  and  allows  the  upper 
draught  to  get  an  upward  start. 

To  support  lead  tank  lining. 

Tank  linings  having  large  area,  frequently  have  to 
be  supported  to  prevent  the  sag  that  would  in  time  fol- 
low owing  to  the  weight  of  the  metal.  On  the  sides  of 
the  tank,  before  the  lining  has  been  put  in,  gouge  out 
enough  shallow  bowls  to  give  the  desired  support, 
then  when  the  lining  is  in  place,  beat  it  into  the  bowls, 
and  in  the  center  of  each  bowl  put  in  a  strong  brass 
screw.  Finally,  scrape  the  inside  of  the  bowl  and  wipe 
it  flush  with  the  surface. 

Substitute  for  a  groover. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  in  lining  a  tank,  a  piece 
of  copper  has  to  be  grooved  and  there  is  no  groover  at 
hand.  In  this  case,  turn  a  common  monkey  wrench  up 
to  the  width  of  the  seam  desired,  which  works  very 
well  as  a  substitute. 

Spanish  windlass. 

The  Spanish  windlass,  as  it  is  called,  will  often  be 
found  handy  where  lead  pipe  of  a  large  size  has  to  be 


Practical  Subjects.  8l 

rolled  over,  as  may  be  the  case  where  it  is  desired  to 
bring  a  leak  at  the  bottom  of  a  pipe  to  the  top.  After 
heating  the  pipe  as  explained  elsewhere,  take  a  strong 
cord,  tying  the  two  ends  together,  and  making  the  loop 
quite  short.  Bring  the  double  cord  or  loop  around  the 
pipe  and  shove  a  stick  of  soft  wood  through  one  of  the 
loops  so  that  the  end  of  the  stick  will  just  catch  and 
hold  the  other  loop  firmly  against  the  pipe.  With  this 
arrangement  the  desired  work  can  be  done,  as  the 
harder  it  is  pulled,  the  tighter  the  grip  becomes. 

To  make  a  cup  joint  on  horizontal  pipe. 

Cut  the  pipe  off  on  a  slant  and  swedge  out  one  end, 
enough  to  let  the  opposite  end  drop  into  the  cup.  Then 
with  a  sharp  pointed  soldering  copper,  a  good  cup 
joint  can  be  made.  By  using  a  long  pointed  copper 
there  is  not  so  much  heat  at  the  extreme  end,  and  the 
solder  will  be  less  liable  to  run  away  from  ,the  work. 

Square  bend  in  lead  pipe. 

A  nice  square  bend  can  be  made  on  a  piece  of  lead 
pipe  if  necessary,  by  cutting  out  a  V  shaped  piece  at 
45  degrees,  the  cut  running  only  through  the  bore  of 
the  pipe,  after  which  the  pipe  is  bent  and  burned  to- 
gether. Other  than  square  bends  may  be  formed  by 
cutting  out  a  piece  at  the  right  angle. 

To  plug  a  range  boiler. 

The  great  trouble  in  plugging  a  boiler  in  which  a 
leak  has  occurred,  is  to  get  thickness  enough  for  more 
than  one  thread.  To  overcome  this,  after  the  hole  has 
been  reamed  out,  drive  in  carefully  a  tapering  punch, 
thereby  forcing  a  heavy  burr  into  the  boiler,  which  will 
?ive  a  chance  for  additional  threads  if  it  is  done  care- 


To  prevent  rain  leaders  from  freezing  and  bursting. 

The  freezing  and  bursting  of  rain  leaders  can  be 
avoided  by  running  a  small  steam  pipe  into  the  leader 
pipe,  with  a  valve  near  the  main  connection.  Whenever 
ice  is  found  to  have  formed,  a  jet  of  steam  will  quickly 
relieve  the  trouble. 

To  run  a  joint  where  there  is  not  room  for  an 
asbestos  rope. 

6 


63  Practical  Subjects. 

Cut  out  a  ring  of  pasteboard,  the  inner  circle  just 
the  size  of  the  outside  diameter  of  the  pipe;  then  cut 
through  one  side  of  the  ring  so  that  it  may  be  slipped 
over  the  pipe  and  against  the  hub  where  the  joint 
is  to  be  made.  With  the  slit  in  the  pasteboard  at 
the  top,  the  use  of  a  little  putty  will  complete  the  de- 
vice, so  that  the  joint  can  be  successfully  poured. 

To  wipe  a  joint  on  block  tin  pipe. 

Prepare  the  joint  as  for  lead  work,  and  use  bismuth 
solder  instead  of  ordinary  wiping  solder.  Heat  the 
spider  until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  a  thick  por- 
ridge. Having  warmed  the  pipe,  make  the  joint 
quickly,  remembering  that  it  must  be  made  the  first 
time,  as  it  cannot  be  wiped  and  rewiped  as  on  lead 
pipe.  If  the  workman  is  fairly  skillful,  he  will  have 
ample  time  in  which  to  wipe  the  joint. 

To  make  a  joint  on  lead-lined  soil  pipe. 

This  pipe  must  sometimes  be  used,  for  instance 
when  certain  kinds  of  acids  enter  the  drainage  sys- 
tem. In  connecting  a  piece  of  such  pipe  into  a  hub, 
the  iron  pipe  should  be  cut  off  beyond  the  end  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  for  beating  the  lead  over  the  end  of 
the  iron  pipe.  When  placed  in  the  hub,  the  hot  lead 
will  make  a  perfect  joint,  and  the  iron  be  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  acids. 

To  finish  galvanized  piping. 

Go  over  the  piping  after  its  completion,  with  fine 
sand  paper,  being  careful  always  to  rub  one  way. 

Coils  for  beer  work. 

Use  Yz  in.  block  tin  pipe.  Never  use  lead  pipe^as 
lead  poisoning  is  sure  to  result  from  the  strong  action 
of  the  beer  on  the  lead. 

For  a  coil  of  10  in.  diameter,  cut  off  12  ft.  of  pipe. 
For  a  coil  of  12  in.  diameter,  cut  off  25  ft.  of  pipe. 
For  a  coil  of  14  in.  diameter,  cut  off  30  ft.  of  pipe. 
These   lengths   will   allow   ample   tail   pieces   to   con- 
nect to. 

A  handy  device  for  bending  small  pipes  when  usual 
facilities  are  not  at  hand. 


Practical  Subjects.  83 

Obtain  a  tee  of  sufficient  size  to  slip  onto  the  pipe 
to  be  bent.  Into  the  side  opening  of  the  tee  screw 
about  three  feet  of  pipe.  Slip  the  tee  onto  the  pipe 
to  the  point  where  the  bend  is  to  be  made,  and  use  the 
pipe  into  the  side  opening  of  the  tee  as  a  lever  or  as  a 
support  to  bend  against.  A  sharp  bend  at  the  exact 
point  can  be  obtained. 

Shelac  to  hold  bi-transit  waste  packings. 

The  plumber  is  often  bothered  by  the  slipping  off 
of  these  packings.  To  avoid  this,  use  cut  shelac  as 
follows.  Before  putting  on  the  packing,  wipe  a  little 
of  the  shelac  around  the  inside  of  the  rubber,  and  let 
it  dry.  Then  cover  the  brass  work  with  shelac,  and 
give  the  rubber  a  second  coating.  Then  slip  the 
packing  at  once  into  place.  This  will  hold  for  a  long 
time.  Better  results  can  be  obtained,  however,  from 
shelac  cut  in  turpentine,  which  will  withstand  water 
as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  work  holds  together.  It 
takes  two  or  three  weeks  to  cut  shelac  with  turpen- 
tine, but  a  bottle  of  it  will  be  found  very  useful. 

An  easy  method  of  setting  up  work  for  wiping. 

The  plumber  is  often  bothered  in  setting  up  his 
work  preparatory  to  wiping.  For  instance,  in  wiping 
a  brass  ferrule,  he  will  often  have  to  drive  a  round 
stick  into  one  end  of  the  ferrule  to  give  a  support  on 
which  to  rest  the  work.  The  following  will  avoid 
some  of  this  work.  Go  around  the  end  of  the  pipe 
where  it  meets  the  ferrule  or  where  it  meets  the  pipe 
to  which  it  is  to  be  joined,  with  a  large  hot  soldering 
copper,  burning  the  lead  together.  Sometimes  a  small 
drop  of  solder  is  used  to  start  the  lead  flowing,  but 
not  more  than  a  drop  should  be  used,  as,  the  nearer 
the  burned  joint  comes  to  being  lead,  the  longer  it 
will  withstand  heat.  As  solder  melts  much  easier  than 
lead,  the  lead  joint  will  hold  the  work  firmly  while 
the  joint  is  being  wiped. 

An  easy  method  of  bending  brass  pipe. 

Fill  the  pipe  with  sand,  well  rammed,  and  plug  the 
ends.  Place  the  pipe  on  the  end  of  the  bench,  allow* 
ing  one  end  to  overhang.  Set  a  furnace  under  the 
point  where  the  bend  is  to  be  made,  and  cover  it  on 
top  with  a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  a  shovel  or  other  con* 


84  Practical  Subjects. 

venient  manner,  to  confine  the  heat.  Watch  care- 
fully that  the  pipe  does  not  become  overheated.  As 
it  heats,  the  weight  of  the  overhanging  pipe  will 
cause  it  to  bend  until  it  reaches  the  floor,  if  of  suffi- 
cient length.  With  a  little  care  sharp  right  angle 
bends  can  be  very  neatly  made  in  this  way.  When 
heated  brass  is  very  brittle,  but  in  this  case  the  pipe 
itself  acts  as  a  tell-tale.  When  the  bend  is  complete 
allow  it  to  cool.  If  the  overhanging  part  is  too  short 
to  give  sufficient  weight  to  carry  itself  down,  a  weight 
may  be  attached  to  the  end. 

To  repair  leak  on  range  boiler. 

On  this  work  it  is  much  better  to  make  the  joint 
inside  the  boiler.  Ream  out  the  hole  where  the  leak 
is,  removing  any  inside  bur.  Next  lower  a  string  in- 
to the  boiler  through  the  top  opening  of  boiler,  and 
with  a  bent  wire  draw  the  string  through  the  hole 
that  has  been  reamed  out.  Attach  to  the  string  a  bolt 
with  brass  washer  and  rubber  washer  fitting  tight  to 
the  bolt.  With  a  little  patience  the  bolt  can  be 
drawn  through  the  hole  by  means  of  the  string.  A 
nut  outside  will  set  the  bolt  up  and  make  a  tight  joint 
with  the  rubber  washer.  This  gives  the  advantage 
of  the  inside  pressure  to  make  the  joint  tight. 

An  aid  in  brazing. 

Occasionally  the  plumber  is  called  upon  to  do  a 
little  brazing.  He  will  find  that  a  little  powdered  tin 
sprinkled  on  the  seam  just  as  the  spalter  reaches  the 
melting  point,  will  make  the  solder  flow  much  more 
freely. 

To  hold  heat  in  wiping  large  joints. 

In  wiping  a  large  joint,  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
metal  at  the  proper  heat.  A  bag  of  hot  sand  placed 
inside  the  pipe  will  help  in  keeping  this  heat. 

To  keep  pipes  from  freezing. 

Build  around  the  length  of  the  exposed  pipe  a 
series  of  boxes  one  outside  another,  with  air  spaces 
of  about  one  inch  between  the  boxes.  Rough  boards 
are  as  good  as  better  material  for  this  purpose.  The 
air  spaces  afford  the  best  of  protection  to  the  pipe. 


fit. 


(85) 


86  Practical  Subjects. 

To  wash  or  glaze  wiped  joints. 

This  is  a  matter  requiring  considerable  practice 
and  judgment  as  to  proper  heat.  Make  the  joint  in 
the  usual  manner.  It  is  not  necessary  to  finish  up  the 
joint  to  any  extent.  Then  when  the  joint  has  reached 
a  proper  heat,  take  a  ladle  of  semi-fluid  solder  and 
pour  over  the  joint,  wiping  it  off  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. This  will  give  a  bright,  silvery  appearance  to 
the  joint,  and  it  also  prevents  any  chance  of  its  be- 
ing porous. 

To  remove  paint. 

Wash  the  painted  surface  with  potash  dissolved  in 
water.  Use  a  swab  and  do  not  get  the  liquid  on  the 
hands. 

To  thaw  frozen  main  underground. 

For  this  purpose  a  thaw  pipe  is  useful.  The  pipe 
should  be  %  or  54  inch,  of  either  lead  or  iron.  If 
the  run  is  not  straight,  lead  should  be  used.  Onto 
one  end  of  the  pipe  solder  a  small  tunnel.  Holding 
the  tunnel  up  as  high  as  possible,  with  the  pipe  in- 
serted into  the  frozen  pipe,  pour  in  hot  water  grad- 
ually, while  a  gentle  pressure  is  kept  with  the  pipe 
against  the  frozen  section,  the  pipe  being  shoved  in 
as  the  ice  thaws.  In  this  way  ice  can  be  thawed  for 
40  or  50  feet  into  the  street.  It  is  well  to  attach  a 
round-way  stop  cock  before  commencing,  which  will 
allow  the  thaw  pipe  to  pass  through,  and  which  may 
be  closed  when  the  water  starts. 


RECIPES. 


To  keep  plaster  of  Paris  from  setting  too  quickly. — 

Sift  the  plaster  into  the  water,  allowing  it  to  soak  up 
the  water  without  stirring,  which  would  admit  the  air, 
and  cause  the  plaster  to  set  very  quickly.  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  keep  the  plaster  soft  for  a  much  longer  period, 
as  is  necessary  for  some  kinds  of  work,  add  to  every 
quart  of  water  one-half  teaspoonful  of  common  cooking 
soda.  This  will  gain  all  the  time  that  is  needed. 

To  remove  grease  stains  from  marble.—  Mix  soft 
soap  1^2  parts,  Fuller's  earth  3  parts,  potash  ij^  parts, 
and  boiling  water.  Coyer  the  grease  spots  with  this 
mixture,  letting  it  remain  a  few  hours. 

To  keep  paste  from  spoiling. —  Add  a  few  drops  of 
oil  of  clove. 

To  make  a  cement  that  will  hold  when  all  others 
fail. —  Melt  over  a  slow  fire  equal  parts  of  rubber  and 
pitch.  When  wishing  to  use  it,  melt  and  spread  it  on  a 
strip  of  strong  cotton  cloth. 

Bath  for  cleaning  sheet  copper  that  is  to  be  tinned. 

—  Pour  into  water  sulphuric  acid,  until  the  temperature 
rises  to  about  blood  heat,  when  it  will  be  about  right 
for  pickling  purposes. 

To  tin  sheet  copper  after  it  has  been  well  cleaned. 

—  Take  it  from  the  bath.    If  there  are  any  spots  which 
the  acid  has  failed  to  remove,  scour  with  salt  and  sand. 
Then  over  a  light  charcoal  fire  heat  it,  touching  it  with 
tin  or  solder,  and  wipe  from  one  end  of  the  sheet  to 
the  other  with  a  handful  of  flax,  only  going  so  fast  as 
it  is  thoroughly  tinned.     If  the  tinning  shows  a  yellow- 
ish color,  it  shows  there  is  too  much  heat,  which  is  the 
greatest    danger,    as    tinning    should   be    done   with    as 
little    heat    as    is    necessary    to    make    the    metal    flow. 
When  this  is  done,  rinse  off  in  clean  water  and  dry  in 
sawdust. 

(87) 


88  Recipes. 

To  give  copper  a  red  appearance  as  seen  on  bath 
boilers. —  After  the  copper  has  been  cleaned,  rub  on  red 
chalk  and  hammer  it  in  with  a  planishing  hammer. 

To  tin  soldering  copper  with  salammoniac. —  It  will 
be  found  very  handy  to  have  a  stick  of  salammoniac  in 
one's  kit  for  tinning  purposes.  After  filing  the  heated 
copper  bright,  touch  the  copper  with  the  salammoniac 
and  afterward  with  a  stick  of  solder.  The  solder  will 
at  once  flow  over  the  entire  surface.  In  this  there  is 
but  one  danger,  the  too  great  heating  of  the  copper,  in 
which  case  the  burned  salammoniac  will  form  a  hard 
crust  over  the  surface.  Tin  with  as  little  heat  as  pos- 
sible. Salammoniac  will  be  found  of  great  value  in 
keeping  the  soldering  copper  in  shape  by  frequently 
rubbing  the  tinned  point  with  it. 

To  Keep  Soldering  Coppers  in  Order  While  Solder- 
ing with  Acid. —  In  a  pint  of  water  dissolve  a  piece  of 
salammoniac  about  the  size  of  a  walnut.  Whenever  the 
copper  is  taken  from  the  fire,  dip  the  point  into  the 
liquid,  and  the  zinc  taken  from  the  acid  will  run  to  the 
point  of  the  copper  and  can  then  be  shaken  off,  leaving 
the  copper  bright. 


RULES. 


To  find  the  contents  of  a  square  tank:  Multiply 
length,  breadth  and  height  in  feet  together;  the  result 
by  7.4;  this  will  give  the  number  of  gallons  in  the  tank. 
Or  multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  height  in  inches 
and  the  result  by  .004329. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  cylinder:  Multiply  the  diam- 
eter in  inches  by  itself,  this  by  the  height,  and  the  result 
by  .3400;  this  gives  the  number  of  gallons. 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle:  Multiply  the 
„  diameter  by  3.14. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle:  Square  the  diameter  and 
multiply  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  pressure  per  square  inch  exerted  by  a 
column  of  water,  multiply  the  head  in  feet  by  0.434. 

The  result  will  be  the  pressure  in  pounds. 

To  find  the  head  in  feet,  the  pressure  being  known, 
multiply  the  pressure  per  square  inch  by  2.31. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  barrel:  To  twice  the  square 
of  the  largest  diameter,  add  the  square  of  the  smallest 
diameter  and  multiply  this  by  the  height,  and  the  result 
by  2618.  This  will  give  the  cubic  inches  in  the  barrel, 
and  this  divided  by  231  will  give  the  number  of  gallons. 

To  find  the  lateral  pressure  of  water  upon  the  side  of 
a  tank,  multiply  in  inches  the  area  of  the  submerged 
side  by  the  pressure  due  to  one-half  the  depth. 

Example. —  Suppose  a  tank  to  be  12  feet  long  and  12 
feet  deep.  Find  the  pressure  upon  the  side  of  tank, 
144X144=20,736  inches  area  of  side,  i2X.43=5.i6,  pres- 
sure at  bottom  of  tank;  pressure  at  top,  o;  average,  2.6; 
therefore,  20,736X2.6=53,914,  pressure  on  side  of  tank. 

The  rule  of  6-8-10,  to  ascertain  if  an  article  is  square: 
Measure  off  six  inches  on  one  side  of  the  angle,  and  on 

(89) 


QO  Rules. 

the  other  measure  8  inches.  If  the  article  is  perfectly 
square  it  will  measure  exactly  10  inches  across  from 
point  to  point.  This  rule  holds  good  in  feet. 

Rule  for  finding  the  size  of  a  pipe  necessary  to  fill  a 
number  of  smaller  pipes:  Suppose  it  is  desired  to  fill 
from  one  pipe  a  2-,  2^-  and  4-inch  pipe.  Draw  a  right 
angle,  one  arm  2  inches  in  length,  the  other  2j^  inches 
in  length.  From  the  extreme  ends  of  the  two  arms 
draw  a  line.  The  length  of  this  line  in  inches  will  give 
the  size  of  pipe  necessary  to  fill  the  two  smaller  pipes 
—  about  3^4  inches.  From  one  end  of  this  last  line, 
draw  another  line  at  right  angles  to  it,  4  inches  in 
length.  Now,  from  the  end  of  the  2-inch  line  to  the 
end  of  the  last  line  draw  another  line.  Its  length  will 
represent  the  size  of  pipe  necessary  to  fill  a  2-,  2j^- 
and  4-inch  pipe.  This  may  be  continued  as  long  as 
desired. 

Discharge  of  water:  The  amount  of  water  discharged 
through  a  given  orifice  during  a  given  length  of  time 
and  under  different  heads,  is  as  the  square  roots  of  the 
corresponding  heights  of  the  water  in  the  reservoir 
above  the  surface  of  the  orifice. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  foot  of  pipe  of  any 
diameter:  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the 
pipe  in  inches  by  .0408. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  that  will  drain 
from  a  roof:  Multiply  the  number  of  square  feet  of  roof 
by  the  average  number  of  inches  of  rainfall  per  month, 
and  the  product  by  .623.  The  result  gives  the  number 
of  gallons  which  will  drain  from  the  roof  in  a  month. 
When  the  roof  is  not  flat  or  very  nearly  so  its  area 
should  be  considered  as  the  area  which  it  actually 
covers. 

To  find  the  power  necessary  to  raise  water  to  any 
given  height:  Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  required 
per  minute  by  the  number  of  feet  through  which  it  is 
to  be  lifted.  Then  multiply  this  result  by  6.23  and 
divide  by  33,000,  which  will  give  the  nominal  horse 
power  required.  If  the  amount  of  water  required  per 
minute  is  in  gallons,  the  multiplier  will  be  8.3  instead  of 
6.23. 


Rules.  91 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  cistern  or  well:  Multiply 
the  square  of  the  diameter  in  inches  by  the  decimal 
.7854.  Multiply  this  result  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and 
divide  this  by  231.  The  final  figure  gives  the  contents 
in  gallons. 

Example.  —  Cistern,  10  ft.  deep,  5  ft.  in  diameter.    The 
square  of  60,  the  diameter  in  inches,  is  3,600. 
3,600X7854=2,827.44. 

2,827.44X120—3,392.93  cubic  inches  in  cistern. 
3,392.93-^-231  (cubic  in.  in  gal.)  =1,469  gallons. 

To  find  the  thickness  of  lead  pipe  necessary  for  a 
given  head  of  water:  Multiply  the  head  in  feet  by  the 
size  of  pipe  required,  expressed  as  a  decimal,  and  divide 
the  result  by  750.  The  quotient  represents  the  thick- 
ness required,  in  one-hundredths  of  an  inch. 

Example.  —  What  thickness  should  half-inch  pipe  have 
for  a  head  of  50  ft.? 


25-^750^.033  inch. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  pipe  to  discharge  a  given 
amount  of  water  per  minute,  in  cubic  feet:  Multiply  the 
square  of  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet  per  minute  by  .96. 
The  result  equals  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  inches. 

To  find  the  head  which  will  produce  a  given  velocity 
of  water  through  a  pipe  of  a  given  diameter  and  length: 
Multiply  the  square  of  the  velocity,  expressed  in  feet 
per  second,  by  the  length  of  pipe  multiplied  by  the 
quotient  obtained  by  dividing  13.9  by  the  diameter  of 
the  pipe  in  inches,  and  divide  the  result  obtained  by 
2,500.  The  final  amount  will  give  the  head  in  feet. 

Example.  —  The  horizontal  length  of  pipe  is  1,200 
feet,  and  the  diameter  is  4  inches.  What  head  must  be 
secured  to  produce  a  flow  of  3  feet  per  second? 

3X3=9;  13.9-^4=3.475. 
9X1,200X3-475=37,530. 
37,53o-f-2,5oo=i5  ft. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capac- 
ity four  times. 

To  find  the  velocity  of  water  flowing  through  a  hori- 
zontal straight  pipe  of  given  length  and  diameter,  the 


92  Rules. 

head  of  water  above  the  center  of  the  pipe  being 
known:  Multiply  the  head  in  feet  by  2,500,  and  divide 
the  result  by  the  length  of  pipe  in  feet  multiplied  by 
13.9,  divided  by  the  inner  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  inches. 
The  square  root  of  the  quotient  gives  the  velocity  in% 
feet  per  second. 

Example.  —  The  head  is  6  feet,  length  1,340  feet,  and 
diameter  5  inches.  What  is  the  velocity  of  water  pass- 
ing through  the  pipe? 

2,500X6=15,000. 

1,340X13.9=18,626-4-5=3,725.2. 

15,000-^3,725.2=4.03. 

The  square  root  of  4.03=2  feet  per  second. 

To  find  the  weight  of  any  length  of  lead  pipe,  when 
the  diameter  and  thickness  of  the  lead  are  known: 
Multiply  the  square  of  the  outer  diameter  in  inches,  by 
the  weight  of  12  cylindrical  inches,  then  multiply  the 
square  of  the  inner  diameter  in  inches  by  the  same 
amount,  subtracting  the  product  of  the  latter  from 
that  of  the  former.  The  remainder  multiplied  by  the 
length  gives  the  desired  result. 

Example.—  Find  the  weight  of  1,200  feet  of  lead 
pipe,  the  outer  diameter  being  7/%  inch,  and  the  inner 
diameter  T\  inch. 

N.  B.  —  The  weight  of  12  cylindrical  inches,  i  foot 
long,  i  inch  in  diameter,  is  3.8697  Ibs. 


.765625—  .3i64o6=.4492i9X3-8697Xi,20o=2,o86  Ibs. 


Tests  for  Pure  Water. 

Color. —  Fill  a  long  clean  bottle  of  colorless  glass 
with  the  water.  Look  through  it  at  some  blank  object. 
It  should  look  colorless  and  free  from  suspended  mat- 
ter. A  muddy  or  turbid  appearance  indicates  soluble 
organic  matter  or  solid  matter  in  suspension. 

Odor. —  Fill  the  bottle  half  full,  cork  it  and  leave  it 
in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  hours.  If,  when  uncorked,  it 
has  a  smell  the  least  repulsive,  it  should  be  rejected  for 
domestic  use. 


(93) 


94  Rules. 

Taste. —  If  water  at  any  time,  even  after  heating,  has 
a  repulsive  or  disagreeable  taste,  it  should  be  rejected. 
A  simple,  semi-chemical  test  is  known  as  the  "Heisch 
Test."  Fill  a  clean  pint  bottle  three-fourths  full  of 
water;  add  a  half  teaspoonful  of  clean  granulated  or 
crushed  loaf  sugar;  stop  the  bottle  with  glass  or  a 
clean  cork,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  light,  in  a  moderately 
warm  room,  for  forty-eight  hours.  If  the  water  be- 
comes cloudy,  or  milky,  it  is  unfit  for  domestic  use. 

To  compute  the  amount  of  caulking  lead  used  on  any 
amount  of  work:  Allow  for  each  joint  one  pound  for 
each  inch  in  size. 

Example. —  How  much  caulking  lead  would  be  neces- 
sary on  a  job  of  30  4-inch  joints,  and  20  2-inch  joints? 
For  a  4-inch  joint,  4  Ibs.  would  be  used. 
For  a  2-inch  joint,  2  Ibs.  would  be  used. 
Therefore,  the  total  amount  would  be,  viz.: 
30X4=120 
20X2=  40 


160  Ibs. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  pump  cylinder  to  move  a 
given  quantity  of  water  per  minute  (100  feet  of  piston 
being  the  standard  of  speed):  Divide  the  number  of 
gallons  by  4,  then  take  the  square  root,  and  the  product 
will  be  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pump  cylinder. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute, 
running  at  100  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute:  Square 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply 
by  4. 

A  Safe  Rule 

Showing  the  number  of  burners  allowed  on  different 
sizes  of  gas  pipe  and  the  length  of  different  sizes  al- 
lowed: 
Size  of  Pipe.  Length  Allowed.  No.  of  Burners. 

y2  inch.  20  6 

y*  inch.  30  15 

1  inch.  50  20 
\y$  inch.  75  40 
iy2  inch.  120  60 

2  inch.  160  100 


TABLES. 


Contents  of  Marble  Slabs  in  Square  Feet  and  Inches. 


WIDTH   IN  INCHES. 

IS 

0 

7 

8 

9 

IO 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in. 

13 

6 

7 
g 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

i 

14 

7 
7 

9 

9 

10 

ii 

i 

i    i 

I      2 

3 

4 

15 

8 

9 

10 

i 

i    i 

I      2 

i     3 

4 

6 

i    7 

16 

8 

10 

ii 

I 

I      2 

i    3 

i    4 

5 

7 

i    8 

1    9 

17 

9 

10 

i 

i     i 

i     3 

i    4 

6 
g 

8 

i    9 

i  ii 

19 

r       9 

10 

ii 

i 

i    3 

i    4 

i    6 

i    7 

9 

9 

10 

2 

2      I 

20 

IO 

2 

i    3 

i    5 

i    7 

i    8 

IO 

ii 

2      I 

2    3 

21 

ii 

i 

2 

I    4 

i    6 

i    8 

i    9 

ii 

i 

2      2 

2    4 

22 
23 

ii 

i 

2 

3 
4 

1     I 

;  i 

i    9 
i    9 

I    10 

i  ii 

i 

2 

3 

2     4 

2    5 

2    5 
2    7 

24 

2 

4 

i    6 

i    8 

I    10 

2 

2 

4 

2      6 

2      8 

25 
26 

i 

3 

I 

i    7 

i    9 

i  ii 

2      I 

3 

2    7 

2      9 

2    9 

2   II 

27 

2 

4 

6 

i    9 

i  ii 

2      I 

2     3 

5 

9 

2   IO 

3 

28 

2 

5 

7 

i    9 

2 

2      2 

2     4 

6 

9 

2    II 

3    I 

29 

3 

8 

I    10 

2      I 

2      3 

2      5 

7 

2   10 

3 

3    3 

3O 

3 

6 

8 

i  ii 

2      I 

2     4 

2      6 

9 

2    II 

3      2 

3    4 

31 

4 

7 

9 

2 

2      2 

2      5 

2    7 

10 

3 

3    3 

3    5 

32 

4 

7 

10 

2 

2      3 

2     6 

2      8 

ii 

3    i 

3    4 

3    7- 

33 

5 

8 

IO 

2      I 

2     4 

2      7 

2    9 

3 

3    3 

3    5 

3    8 

34 

8 

ii 

2      2 

2     5 

2     8 

2    IO 

3    i 

3    4 

3    7 

3    9 

35 
30 

6 

9 
9 

2     3 
2      3 

2      6 

2      6 

2     Q 
2     9 

2    II 

3 

3    2 
3    3 

3    5 
3    6 

3    8 
3    9 

3  Ii 
4 

37 

7 

IO 

2      I 

2    4 

2    7 

2   10 

3    i 

3    4 

3    7 

3  10 

4    i 

38 

7 

IO 

2     2 

2    5 

2     8 

2    II 

3    2 

3    5 

3    8 

4 

4    3 

39 

8 

ii 

2      2 

2      6 

2    9 

3 

3    3 

3    6 

3  10 

4    i 

4    4 

4O 

8 

2      3 

2      6 

2   10 

3    i 

3    4 

3    7 

3  ii 

4    2 

4    5 

41 

9 

2      3 

2    7 

2   II 

3    2 

3    5 

3    8 

4    3 

4    7 

42 
43 

9 

IO 

I 

i 

2     4 
2      5 

2     8 

2     8 

2   II 

3 

3    3 
3    4 

3    6 

3    7 

3  10 
3  ii 

4    2 

4    5 
4    6 

4    8 
4    9 

44 
45 

10 

II 

2 
2      3 

2      6 
2     6 

2    9 

2   10 

3    i 
3    2 

M 

3    8 
3    9 

4 
4    i 

4    3 
4    5 

4    7 
4    8 

4  ii 
5 

4O 

II 

2     3 

2      7 

2    II 

3    3 

3    7 

3  10 

4    2 

4    6 

4  10 

5    i 

47 

2     4 

2     8 

3 

3    4 

3    7 

3  ii 

4    3 

4    7 

\  ii 

5    3 

Add  one  inch  for  each  finished  edge. 


(Concluded  on  next  page.) 


(95) 


Tables. 


WIDTH    IN   INCHES. 

tl 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

«jc 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in. 

ft.in. 

ft.in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in 

17 

2      2 

18 

2     2 

2    3 

19 

2      3 

2    5 

2      6 

20 

2    4 

2      6 

2      8 

2    9 

2      6 

2      8 

2      9 

2    II 

3    i 

22 

2    7 

2    9 

2    II 

3    i 

3    3 

3    4 

23 

2    9 

2    II 

3 

3     2 

3    4 

3    6 

3    8 

24 

2   10 

3 

3    2 

3    4 

3    6 

3    8 

3  10 

4 

25 

2    II 

3T 

3    2 

3-1 

3    4 

3r 

3    6 

3    8 

3  10 

4 

4    2 

4    4 

4    8 

27 

• 

3    2 

6 

3    5 

0 

3    7 

3    9 

3  ii 

4    2 

4    4 

4    6 

4    8 

4  ii 

5    i 

28 

3    4 

3    6 

3    8 

3  ii 

4     I 

4    3 

4    6 

4    8 

4  10 

5    i 

5    3 

29 

3    5 

3    8 

3  10 

4 

4    3 

4    5 

4    8 

4  10 

5 

5    3 

5    5 

30 

3    7 

3    9 

4 

4     2 

4    5 

4    7 

4  10 

5 

5    3 

5    5 

5    8 

31 

3    8 

3  ii 

4    i 

4    4 

4    6 

4    9 

4  ii 

5    2 

5    5 

5    7 

5  1° 

32 

3    9 

4 

4    3 

4    5 

4    8 

4  ii 

5    i 

5    4 

5    7 

5    9 

6 

33 

3  ii 

4    2 

4    4 

4    7 

4  10 

5    i 

5    3 

5    6 

5    9 

6 

6      2 

34 

35 

4 

4    3 

4    6 

4    9 

5 

5T 

5    2 
5    4 

5    5 

57 

5    8 
S  10 

5  ii 
6    i 

6      2 

6    4 

6    5 

6     7 

36 

4    3 

4    6 

4    9 

5 

1 

5    3 

5    6 

/ 

5    9 

6    3 

6    6 

°     ' 
6    9 

37 

4    8 

4  ii 

5    2 

5    5 

5    8 

5  ii 

6      2 

6    5 

6    8 

6  ii 

38 
39 

4    7 

4    9 
4  ii 

5 
5    2 

5    3 
5    5 

5    7 
5    8 

6    i 

6    3 

6    4 
6    6 

6^ 

6  10 

7     i 

7    2 
7    4 

40 

4    9 

5 

5    3 

5    7 

5  10 

6    i 

6    5 

6    8 

6  ii 

7    3 

7    6 

41 

4  10 

5    2 

5    5 

5    8 

6 

6    3 

6    7 

6  10 

7    i 

7    5 

7    8 

42 

5 

5    3 

5    7 

5  10 

6      2 

6    5 

6    9 

7 

7    4 

7    7 

7  ii 

43 

5    i 

5    5 

5    8 

6 

6    3 

6    7 

44 

5    2 

5    6 

5  10 

6    i 

6    5 

6    9 

45 

5    4 

5    8 

5  ii 

6    3 

6    7 

6  ii 

46 

5    5 

5    9 

6    i 

6    5 

6    9 

7 

47 

5    7 

5  ii 

6      2 

6    6 

6  10 

7    2 

WIDTH   IN  INCHES. 

X   V) 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

33 

ft.in. 

ft.in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in. 

ft.  in. 

ft.in. 

ft.in. 

ft.in 

28 

5    5 

29 

5    8 

5  1° 

30 

5  10 

6    i 

6    3 

31 

6 

6    3 

6    6 

6    8 

32 

6    3 

6    5 

6    8 

6  ii 

7    i 

33 

34 

6    5 

6      7 

6    8 
6  10 

6  ii 

7     i 

7    4 

7    7 

8 

35 

u    / 
6  10 

7    i 

7    4 

7    6 

7    9 

8 

8    3 

8    6 

36 
37 

7 

7    2 

7     3 
7    5 

7    6 
7    9 

I    9 

8 
8    3 

8    3 
8    6 

8    6 
8    9 

8    9 
9 

9 
9    3 

96 

38 

7    5 

7    8 

7  ii 

8      2 

8    5 

8    9 

9 

9    3 

9    6 

9    9 

10  "" 

39 

7    7 

7  10 

8      2 

8    5 

8    8 

8  ii 

9    3 

9    6 

9    9 

10 

10    4 

40 
41 

1  9 

8    i 
8    3 

8    4 
8    7 

8    7 
8  10 

8  ii 
9    i 

9    2 
9    5 

9    5 
9    8 

9    9 
10 

10 

10    3 

10    3 
10    6 

10    7 

10   10 

42 

8      2 

8    6 

8    9 

9    i 

9    4 

9    8 

9  ii 

10      2 

10    6 

10    10 

ii     I 

Add  one  inch  for  each  finished  edge. 


Tables. 


Capacity  of  Drain  Pipe  Under  Different  Amounts 
of  Fall. 


GAI^ONS  PER  MINUTE. 


Size 
of 
Pipe.* 

Min. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

3  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

6  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

9  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

12  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

i8in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

24  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

36  in. 
fall  per 

100  ft. 

3in. 

21 

30 

42 

52 

60 

74 

85 

104 

4  " 

36 

52 

76 

92 

108 

132 

I48 

184 

6  " 

84 

1  2O 

169 

206 

240 

294 

338 

414 

9  " 

232 

330 

470 

570 

660 

810 

930 

1140 

12    " 

470 

680 

960 

1160 

1360 

1670 

1920 

2350 

15  " 

830 

1180 

1680 

2040 

2370 

2920 

3340 

4IOO 

18   " 

1300 

1850 

2630 

3200 

3740 

4600 

5270 

6470 

20    " 

1760 

2450 

3450 

4180 

4860 

5980 

.  6850 

8410 

Tables. 


Table  of  Quantity  of  Water  Delivered  by  Service  Pipes 

of  Various   Sizes  Under  Various   Pressures. 

Proportion  of  Head  of  Water  (H) 

to  Length  of  Pipe   (L). 

Results  in  Gallons  Per  Minute. 


Diam- 

J 

J 

HJ 

J 

J 

eter 

o 

o 

00 

|^ 

0 

XT) 

Tf 

CO 

of  Pipe. 

ii 

II 

II 

II 

ii 

II 

II 

II 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Inches. 

y* 

19.8 

18.7 

17-7 

1:6.5 

15-3 

14.0 

12.5 

10.8 

*A 

34-5 

32.7 

30.1 

28.9 

26.5 

24.4 

21.5 

18.9 

% 

54-4 

51-7 

48.7 

45-6 

42.2 

38.5 

34-4 

29.8 

i 

in.  8 

106.0 

IOO.O 

93.5 

86.6 

79-o 

70.7 

61.2 

rX 

195.2 

185.2 

174.6 

163.3 

151.2 

138.0 

-  123.4 

106.9 

I/i 

308.  c 

292.1 

275.4 

257.6 

238.5 

217.7 

194.8 

168.7 

2 

632.2 

599-7 

566.4 

538.9 

488.1 

447-0 

399-8 

346.3 

2^ 

1104.0 

1048.0 

987.8 

924.0 

855-4 

780.9 

698.5 

604.9 

3 

1745.0 

1651.0 

1560.0 

1460.0 

I35LO 

1234.0 

1103.0 

955.5 

4 

358i.o 

3397.0 

3203.0 

2996.0 

2774.0 

2532.0 

2265.0 

1962.0 

5 

6247.0 

5928.0 

5588.0 

5227.0 

4839-0 

4417.0 

395LO 

3406.0 

6 

9855.0 

9349-0 

8814.0 

8245.0 

7633.0 

6968.0 

6233.0 

5391-0 

^ 

J 

j 

Diam- 

J 

s* 

X 

^ 

J 

J 

eter 

N 

'M 

TH 

H 

HJ 

^\ 

*£ 

^ft 

of  Pipe. 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Inches. 

y* 

8,8 

8-3 

-     7-7 

7.0 

6.3 

5.4 

4.4 

3.1 

y% 

15-4 

14.4 

13-4 

12.2 

10.9 

9-5 

7-7 

5-5 

% 

24-3 

22.8 

21.  1 

19-3 

17.2 

14.9 

12.2 

S.6 

i 

50.0 

46.8 

43-2 

39-5 

35.3 

30.6 

25.0 

17-7 

!* 

87-3 

81.6 

75-6 

6q.O 

61.7 

53-5 

43-7 

30-9 

137-7 

128.8 

II9-3 

108.9 

97.4 

84.3 

68.7 

48.7 

2 

282.7 

264.4 

248.8 

223.5 

199  9 

I73-I 

141.4 

IOO.O 

2/^ 

493-9 

482.0 

427.7 

390.4 

349-2 

302.4 

246.9 

174.6 

3 

780.2 

728.8 

674.8 

615.9 

555-5 

477-1 

390.1 

275.8 

4 

1602.0 

1496.0 

1385-0 

1264.0 

1133.0 

979-3 

800.8 

566.2 

5 

2791.0 

2613.0 

2420.0 

2209.0 

1976  o 

1711.0 

1394.0 

987-7 

6 

4407.0 

4122.0 

3817.0 

3484.0 

3116.0 

2693.0 

2204.0 

1558.0 

Tables. 


99 


Table  Showing  Pressure  of  Water  at  Different 
Elevations. 


Feet  Head. 

Equals 
Pressure  per 
Square  Inch. 

Feet  Head. 

Equals 
Pressure  per 
Square  Inch. 

I 

•43 

195 

84.47 

5 

2.16 

200 

86  63 

10 

4-33 

205 

88.80 

15 

6.49 

210 

90.96 

20 

8.66 

215 

93.14 

25 

10.82 

220 

95.30 

30 

12.99 

225 

97-49 

35 

15-16 

230 

99.63 

40 

17.32 

235 

101.79 

45 

19.49 

240 

103.96 

*5Q 

21.65 

245 

106.13 

55 

23.82 

250 

108.29 

60 

25-99 

255 

no  46 

65 

28.15 

260 

112.62 

70 

30.32 

265 

114.79 

75 

32.48 

270 

116.96 

80 

34.65 

275 

119  12 

85 

36.82 

280 

121.29 

90 

38.98 

285 

123.45 

95 

4I.I5 

290 

125.62 

IOO 

43-31 

295 

127.78 

105 

45.48 

300 

129.95 

no 

47.64 

310 

134.28 

115 

49.81 

32O 

138.62 

120 

51.98 

330 

142.95 

125 

54-15 

340 

147.28 

130 

56.31 

350 

I5L6I 

135 

58.48 

360 

*     155.94 

140 

60.64 

370 

160.27 

145 

62.81 

380 

164.61 

150 

64.97 

390 

168.94 

155 

67.14 

400 

173.27 

1  60 

69.31 

500 

216.58 

I55 

71-47 

600 

259.90 

170 

73.64 

700 

303.22 

175 

75.80 

800 

346.54 

1  80 

77-97 

900 

389.86 

I85 

80.14 

1000 

433-lS 

190 

82.30 

100 


Tables. 


Table   Showing  the   Weight   of   Pipe   Required  for   a 
Given  Head  (or  Fall)  of  Water. 


i 

NO                  00 
O 

O             oo   O         O               O               O               O 

M 

$     CO               CO 

^              ^  xn       >o               O               N               xn 

v_  ^j                                           M                         M                          M 

1        1 

NO                  OO 

O               O              co   O         O               O               O 

*     M                  N 

co            rf            ^       r-            o            N 

•S*      ,a" 

«       I 

S      - 

N    00                   NO 

$      M                        M     « 

co               O               O               O               O              O 
d                CO               ^               xn              \O                t^ 

h) 

"-                        v—  v^-* 

o 

N     -^-  O           -NtOO 

O      M 

N    O         ^-CO          O  co          O               co                O 

S       « 

S    * 

|      OJM              M^M 

MN          NN          COCO^rj-               -xf               xn 

S    -g 

I     * 

N      CO   O             -NfOO 
O      M 

N                W    O         ^  oo          N    O          ^  co          O 

52^           ^ 

M                  M(S           WN           CNlCOCOCO-Nt 

OJ 

fe          u 

•*2      ^ 

§     °°     2              M 

rtO^-                COWO                 00                  O 

at 

O        ^ 

^00         0 

O     M              M                        MMC<                       N                        CO 

rd 
O 

S 

NO                  CO 

O    M            M                   O                   Tf                  ThOO          OO 

x 

3    ° 

OOO                       M                       M                        MMM 

£      ,13 

S      ^ 

,Q 

- 

£&£ 

xn 

O               xn             oo               O               xn              O 
d              W              co             xn             r^             o 

M 

*      ~ 

d 

1|^ 

5               0 

c          ^ 
d 

0 

0               0               xn              0               0 
TJ-              xn              r^«              O               xn              O 

MMM 

4^"  The  above  weights  of  pipe  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  permit 
the  water  to  be  shut  off  (or  stopped.)  When  the  water  is  permitted  to 
run  continually,  lighter  weight  can  be  used,  say  %  above  weights. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  a  trap  placed  under  each  fixture? 

2.  What  is  a  trap? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  principal  traps  in  use. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  trap  seal? 

5.  What  is  the  ordinary  depth  of  a  trap  seal? 

6.  What  advantage  does  the  main  or  intercepting 
trap  possess? 

7.  What  are  the  objections  to  the  use  of  the  main 
or  intercepting  trap? 

8.  What  are  the  comparative  merits  of  the  S  and 
drum  traps? 

9.  What   precautions    should   be   taken   with   traps 
in  unoccupied  houses  during  cold  weather? 

10.  What  effect  might  the  pressure  of  sewer  gas  on 
the  trap  seal  have? 

11.  How  may  the  pressure  of  sewer  gas  on  the  trap 
seal  be  relieved? 

12.  With    a    sink    properly    trapped    below,    what 
should  be  done  with  the  bell  on  the  sink  strainer? 

13.  How   should   the    cellar    drainage   trap   be   pro- 
tected from   evaporation? 

14.  What  qualities  should  a  trap  possess? 

15.  Name  different  ways  in  which  the  seal  of  a  trap 
may  be  broken? 

16.  Why  are  internal  partitions  in  traps  dangerous? 

17.  Why    should,  traps    with    mechanical    seals    be 
prohibited? 

18.  Where   may  back  vent   pipes   be   connected   to- 
gether? 

19.  What  is  the  difference  between  local  venting  and 
back  venting? 


102  Examination  Questions. 

20.  What    are    the    two    principal    traps    on    which 
nearly  all  other  traps  are  based? 

21.  What  style  of  trap  should  be  used  under  a  hotel 
or  restaurant  sink? 

22.  What  is  the  result  of  double  trapping? 

23.  Describe   some  grease  trap. 

24.  What  style  of  trap  do  you  consider  best  for  a 
bath  tub,  and  why? 

25.  Why  should  traps  be  back  vented? 

26.  Is  it  the  amount  of  water  or  depth  of  seal  that 
offers  most  resistance  to  sewer  gas? 

27.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  ventilated  system 
of  plumbing? 

28.  From  which   side   of  the   trap   should   the  back 
vent  be  taken? 

29.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  back  vent  were 
taken  from  the  wrong  side  of  the  trap? 

30.  Is  it  the  amount  of  water  or  depth  of  seal  that 
offers  the  most  resistance  to  syphonage? 

31.  Where   should    the   back   vent   from   a    trap    be 
carried? 

32.  Why  should   a   back  vent  pipe   enter  the   main 
vent  above  its  fixture? 

33.  What  should  be  the  relative  size  of  waste  and 
back  air  pipes? 

34.  What  material  may  be  used  for  back  venting? 

.35-    What  objection  is  there  to  black  wrought  iron 
pipe  for  back  venting? 

36.  What  fixture  does  not  use  the  same  size  of  pipe 
for  both  waste  and  back  vent? 

37.  In  what  ways  may  water  closets  be  back  vented? 

38.  What  is  the  distinction  between  soil  and  waste 
pipes? 

39.  What  are  the  proper  weights  of  soil  pipe,  stand- 
ard and  extra  heavy? 

40.  How   does   back   venting   effect   evaporation   of 
trap  seal? 


Examination  Questions.  103 

41.  Why   should   rubber  vent   couplings   be   prohib- 
ited? 

42.  Why  is  it  wrong  to  vent  from  the  water  closet 
bowl  ? 

43.  How  should  the  top  and  bottom  connections  of 
main  vent  with  main  stack  be  made? 

44.  What   is   the   advantage   of   returning   the   main 
vent  into  the  stack? 

45.  Where  should  the  main  vent  be  carried? 

46.  Why  should  the  main  vent  enter  the  stack  above 
the  highest  fixture? 

47.  Why  should  a  stack  be  carried  through  the  roof? 

48.  Why  is  it  wrong  to  run  a  back  air  pipe  into  a 
chimney? 

49.  Wh/  is  a  water  closet  at  a  long  distance  from 
the  stack  liable  to  syphonage? 

50.  What  is  understood  by  back  pressure  ? 

51.  What  causes  sewer  pressure? 

52.  How  should  a  fixture  eight  or  more  feet  from 
the  stack  be  vented? 

53.  With  long  runs  of  vent  pipe,  what  should  be  the 
increase  in  size? 

54.  What  sizes  of  waste  pipes  should  be  used  on  the 
several  fixtures? 

55.  What  materials  should  waste  pipes  be  made  of? 

56.  What  is  the  least  fall  allowed  for  waste  and  soil 
pipes? 

57.  Why  should  fixture  wastes   enter  the  stack  in- 
dependently? 

58.  What  causes  the  gurgling  sounds  often  heard  in 
waste  pipes? 

59.  Where  should  the  drip  pipe  from  a  safe  be  run? 

60.  What  is  a  safe,  and  what  is  its  use? 

61.  What  are  the  proper  weights  for  lead  pipe  of 
the  several  sizes? 


IO4  Examination  Questions. 

62.  How  should  connections  be  made  between  waste 
pipes  and  stack? 

63.  How  should  connections  be  made  between  lead 
and  wrought  iron  pipes? 

64.  How  should  horizontal  and  vertical  soil  pipes  be 
supported? 

65.  What  sizes  of  rod  should  be  used  for  hangers? 

66.  How  far  apart  should  hangers  be  placed  on  hori- 
zontal soil  pipe? 

67.  Why  is  it  wrong  to  use  a  T  on  soil  pipe? 

68.  How  should  a  branch  enter  horizontal  soil  pipe? 

69.  How  should  a  ri^ht  angle  turn  in  soil  pipe  be 
made? 

70.  Where  should  clcanouts  be  placed? 

71.  How  deep  should  the  lead  be  poured  in  a  soil 
pipe  hub? 

72.  What  is  the  result  if  too  much  lead  is  used  on  a 
caulked  joint? 

73.  Describe  the  process  of  making  a  caulked  joint 

74.  How  is  a  horizontal  caulked  joint  made? 

75.  How  is  a  rust  joint  made? 

76.  How  far  should  cast  iron  soil  pipe  be  carried 
outside  the  foundation  wall? 

y     77.    Why  is  it  necessary  to  run  the  soil  pipe  beyond 
the  foundation  before  entering  drain  tile? 

78.  What   should   be    done   when   the   stack   passes 
through  the  roof  near  a  window? 

79.  Why  should  caps  or  screens  be  prohibited  at  the 
top  of  a  stack? 

80.  What  benefit  is  derived  from  carrying  the  stack 
through  the  roof? 

81.  How  and  where  would  you  connect  rain  leaders 
into  a  main  drain? 

82.  In  what  way  does  climate  enter  into  the  question 
of  increasing  the  stack  through  the  roof? 


CONNECTIONS  FOR  S   AND  DRUM  TRAPS. 


(105) 


io6  Examination  Questions. 

83.  Describe  the  different  tests  applied  to  plumbing 
work. 

84.  Why  should  all  stacks  passing  through  the  roof 
be  increased  to  4  inches? 

85.  Why  should  all  lead  connections  be  wiped? 

86.  Describe  the  cellar   drainage  system. 

87.  Under   what   conditions   can   the   water   test   be 
used  as  a  final  test? 

88.  What   precautions   should   be   taken   in  running 
soil  pipe  through  the  cellar  wall? 

89.  How  can  pipe  be  caulked  in  a  narrow  recess? 

90.  What  should  be  the  size  of  the  fresh  air  inlet? 

91.  How  and  where  should  the  fresh  air  inlet  enter 
the  main  drain? 

92.  What   is   the   disadvantage   of   taking  the   fresh 
air  inlet  from  the  main  trap? 

93.  Why  is  a  4-inch  soil  pipe  better  than  a  larger 
size  in  any  ordinary  house? 

94.  What  kind  of  drain  pipe  should  be  used  between 
the  house  and  the  sewer? 

95.  What  is  the  proper  way  of  entering  drain  pipe 
into  the  sewer? 

96.  What   precautions    should   be    used    in    running 
drain  pipe? 

97.  What  is  a  fresh  air  inlet  and  its  purpose? 

f     98.     From  which  side  of  the  main  trap  should  a  fresh 
air  inlet  be  taken,  and  why? 

99.  Where  should  fresh  air  inlet  be  run? 

100.  Name  and  describe  the  different  types  of  water 
closets. 

101.  Why  are  bends  in  the  fresh  air  inlet  beneficial? 

102.  What  qualities  should  a  water  closet  have  to 
be  sanitary? 

103.  Under  what  conditions  is  a  fresh  air  inlet  in- 
operative when  taken  through  the  roof? 


Examination  Questions.  107 

104.  With  the  main  trap  not  fresh  aired,  what  might 
be  the  effect  on  a  siphon  water  closet? 

105.  Why  should  cistern  or  tank  closets  be  used? 

106.  Name  advantages  of  modern  water  closets  over 
the  old  styles. 

107.  Why    is    it    wrong    to    salt    an    earthen    water 
closet? 

108.  Explain  the  local  vent. 

109.  Of  what  material  should  local  vents  be  made? 
no.     Where  should  a  local  vent  be  carried? 

in.     Where  should  a  local  vent  be  connected  to  a 
water  closet? 

112.  At  what  ]^eight  should  a  flush  tank  be  set? 

113.  Describe  the  setting  of  a  modern  water  closet. 

114.  Why  are  rubber  ells  used  on  the  flush  pipe? 

115.  Why   is   a   syphon   water   closet   comparatively 
noiseless? 

116.  What  is  the  objection  to  placing  plumbing  fix- 
tures in  dark  places? 

117.  Why  would  an  unvented  water  closet  be  liable 
to  syphonage  if  located  at  a  long  distance  from   the 
stack? 

118.  What  sizes  of  flush  tanks  are  used? 

119.  What  two  methods  of  local  venting  are  in  use? 

120.  What  advantages  does  the  independent  system 
of  local  venting  have? 

121.  How  can  the  draught  for  a  local  vent  be  in-, 
creased? 

122.  What  should  be  the  size  of  local  vents: 

/     123.     Name  some  general  requirements  of  local  vent- 
ing. 

124.  Why  should  not  the  local  vent  be  carried  into 
a  soil  pipe  stack? 

125.  How    should    chimney    connections    for    local 
vents  be  made? 


io8  Examination  Questions. 

126.  What   are    the   melting   points    of   wiping   and 
bright  solder? 

127.  Why  is  the  top  part  of  a  joint  wiped  first? 

128.  How  is  the  syphon  applied  advantageously  to 
plumbing  work? 

129.  Explain  the  syphon  tank. 

130.  Why  does  overheating  spoil  solder? 

131.  Explain  the  construction  of  a  cesspool. 

132.  How  is  the  syphonage  of  traps  prevented? 

133.  How  may  a  boiler  be  syphoned? 

134.  Can  the  cistern  boiler  be  syphoned  or  not,  and 
why? 

135.  How  is  solder  made? 

136.  Why    should    wiping    solder    be    stirred    when 
being  used? 

137.  In  what  way  is  syphonage  a  detriment  to  the 
plumbing  system? 

138.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  locating 
a  cesspool? 

139.  How  high  can  water  be  raised  by  atmospheric 
pressure? 

140.  What  causes  solder  to  stick  to  the  cloth? 

141.  How  should  a  buried  pipe  be  wiped? 

142.  Explain  the  preparation  of  a  joint  for  wiping. 

143.  Explain  the  syphon  and  its  action. 

144.  Describe  different  ways  in  which  a  trap  may  be 
syphoned. 

145.  How  far  should  a  horizontal  branch  waste  be 
carried  from  the  main   soil  pipe  without  extending  it 
through  the  roof? 

146.  What  is  the  result  if  there  is  too  much  lead  in 
wiping  solder? 

147.  If  the   wiping  cloth   is   rough   how  would  you 
remedy  it? 

148.  How  may  the  action  of  a  syphon  be  destroyed? 


Examination  Questions.  109 

149.  Explain   how  syphonage  may  be  used  in  pro- 
curing water  supply. 

150.  Why  cannot  a  liquid  be  syphoned  from  a  lower 
to  a  higher  point? 

151.  Explain  the  intermittent  syphon. 

152.  Should  a  cesspool  be  vented  or  not,  and  why? 

153.  Should  the  main  trap  be  used  in  connection  with 
a  cesspool? 

154.  Describe    methods    of    supplying    the    kitchen 
boiler  with  water. 

155.  How  would  you  treat  a  joint  to  give  it  a  mot- 
tled appearance? 

156.  What    is    the*  proper    width    for    the    different 
wiped  joints? 

157.  How  can  a  flaw  on  a  wiped  joint  be  remedied? 

158.  How  do  you  test  solder  for  the  proper  heat  for 
wiping? 

159.  Describe  cup  and  overcast  joints. 

160.  How  would  you  restore  overheated  solder? 

161.  How  would  you  purify  solder  containing  zinc? 

162.  Why  is  grease  rubbed  onto  pipe  before  wiping? 

163.  Describe  a  vacuum  valve. 

164.  Where  there  is  no  vacuum  valve,  what  should 
be  done? 

165.  What  is  an  expansion  pipe,  and  its  use? 

1 66.  What  causes  noise  in  a  hot  water  system? 

167.  Why  does  a  boiler  collapse? 

168.  Name  different  ways  of  securing  a  water  supply 
in  tfye  country. 

169.  Why  is  the  cold  water  pipe  taken  to  the  bottom 
of  the  range  boiler? 

170.  Explain  the  double  boiler  and  its  use. 

171.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  circulating  system? 

172.  Where  should  the  return  pipe  be  connected  to 
the  pressure  boiler? 


no  Examination  Questions. 

173.  How  should  lead  pipes  be  supported? 

174.  At  what  intervals  should  lead  pipe  be  clipped 
up? 

175.  If  street  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  raise  water 
to  the  desired  height,  how  can  it  be  done? 

176.  How  should  circulation  pipes  be  arranged? 

177.  What  should  be  the  relative  difference  in  tem- 
perature to  insure  good  circulation? 

178.  What  is  the  object  of  the  sediment  cock,  and 
where  placed? 

179.  What  may  be  done  to  protect  pipes  from  frost? 

180.  What   are   the   causes   of   chattering   when   the 
faucet  is  opened? 

181.  How  can  water  be  shut  off  on  a  main  not  sup- 
plied with  a  stop  cock? 

182.  Why  do  flow  pipes  give  out  oftener  than  return 
pipes? 

183.  Practically,  how  high   can  water  be  raised  by 
an  ordinary  pump? 

184.  Theoretically,  how  high  can  water  be  raised? 

185.  What  makes  the   difference  between  the  theo- 
retical   and    practical    height    to    which    water    can    be 
raised? 

186.  What  causes  a  water  front  to  burst? 

187.  Why  should  the  room  in  which  a  storage  tank 
is  located  be  ventilated? 

188.  What  is  a  good  size  of  supply  tank  for  range 
boiler? 

189.  Explain  the  action  of  a  pump. 

190.  Can  water  be  drawn  from  so  great  a  depth  at  a 
high  elevation  as  at  the  sea  level? 

191.  What  is  the  purpose  of  an  air  chamber-? 

192.  Explain  the  action  of  the  hydraulic  ram. 

193.  Explain  the  action  of  the  lift-force  pump. 

194.  How  may  an  air  chamber  be  destroyed? 


Examination  Questions.  in 

195.  Explain  the  deep  well  pump. 

196.  What  is  the  least  fall  under  which  the  hydraulic 
ram  will  work? 

197.  What  is  the  relative  size  of  the  drive  and  deliv- 
ery pipes  of  a  ram? 

198.  How  high  will  a  ram  raise  water? 

199.  What  is  a  vacuum? 

200.  How  does  friction  affect  water  supply? 

201.  Explain  distillation. 

202.  How  should  the  bottom  end  of  a  suction  pipe 
be  arranged? 

203.  How  would  youiproceed  to  repair  a  pump? 

204.  What  is  atmospheric  pressure? 

205.  What   is   the   pressure   of   the   atmosphere   per 
square  inch  at  the  sea  level? 

206.  Why  is  atmospheric  pressure  less  at  the  top  of 
a  mountain  than  at  the  foot? 

207.  How  does  atmospheric  pressure  apply  to  pump 
work? 

208.  Why  does  heated  air  rise? 

209.  In  what  way  is  the  rising  of  heated  air  applied 
to  local  venting? 

210.  Explain  evaporation  and  its  causes. 

211.  What  is  fusion? 

212.  What  is  a  flux? 

213.  What  is  an  alloy? 

214.  Under  what  conditions  will  water  absorb  gases 
most  readily? 

215.  Does  water  expand  or  contract  in  freezing? 

216.  Name  some  freeziag  mixture. 

217.  What  is  capillary  attraction? 

218.  Why  does  oil  in  water  prevent  its  freezing? 

219.  What  force  is  exerted  by  frost? 

220.  What  is  a  dead  end? 


H2  Examination  Questions. 

221.  What  is  a  by-pass? 

222.  What  is  air  lock? 

223.  Explain  the  bursting  of  pipes  by  frost. 

224.  At  what  temperature  does  water  boil? 

225.  What  is  the  melting  point  of  lead  and  tin? 

226.  Explain  gravitation. 

227.  Why  does  water  that  has  been  heated  freeze 
more  readily  than  other  water? 

228.  What  is  a  crown  vent  ? 

229.  At  what  temperature  does  water  freeze? 

230.  What  is  centrifugal  force? 

231.  How  is  centrifugal  force  applied  in  plumbing? 

232.  Why  is  water  called  hard? 

233.  What    characteristics    are    noticeable    in    pure 
water? 

234.  How  may  a  vacuum  be  formed  in  a  waste  pipe? 

235.  When  a  vacuum  forms  in  a  waste  pipe  what  is 
liable  to  occur? 

236.  Explain  the  value  of  filters. 

237.  Explain  the  value  of  circulation. 

238.  What  is  superheated  steam? 

239.  Why  is  rain  water  soft? 

240.  What  is  specific  gravity? 

241.  Of  what  is  water  composed? 

242.  At  what  temperature  is  water  most  dense? 

243.  Why  does  water  take  a  spiral  motion  when  run- 
ning through  a  pipe? 

244.  Of  what  is  air  composed? 

245.  What  is  the  effect  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  on 
animal  life? 

246.  Why  is  there  more  nitrogen  than  oxygen  in  air? 

247.  Why  do  some  pipes  not  burst  when  frozen? 

248.  What  is   a  tell-tale  pipe,  and  where  should  it 
run? 


(H3) 


H4  Examination  Questions. 

249.  Why  should  all  plumbing  work  be  open? 

250.  How  should  a  refrigerator  be  connected  to  the 
plumbing  system? 

251.  What  is  the  effect  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  lead 
and  iron? 

252.  Why  should  the  plumbing  system  be  ventilated? 

253.  How  should  gas  pipes  be  tested? 

254.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  on  refrigera- 
tor work? 

255.  How  should  a  wrench  be  used  in  putting  in  a 
stop  cock? 

256.  How  can  a  collapsed  boiler  be  restored? 

257.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  oxyhydrogen  flame? 

258.  How  do  you  read  a  T? 

259.  Why  is  a  heated  pipe  bent  more  easily  than  a 
cold  pipe? 

260.  What    precaution   should   be    taken    in    leading 
joints  on  small  pipe? 

261.  How  can  lead  pipe  be  protected  from  rats? 

262.  How  is  a  gas  meter  read? 

263.  How  can  a  tank  lining  be  soldered  when  the 
wood  is  wet? 

264.  How  would  you  repair  a  leak  on  the  under  side 
of  a  lead  pipe? 

265.  How  is  lead  pipe  bent? 

266.  How  can  a  crooked  thread  be  cut? 

267.  How  can  hydrogen  be  produced  for  lead  burn- 
ing? 

268.  What  is  the  danger  of  overheating  a  pipe? 

269.  What  is  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  where  found? 

270.  ^  Why  should  wooden  sinks  and  wash  trays  be 
prohibited? 

271.  What  effect  does  cold  have  on  sewage? 

272.  Explain  the  working  of  a  grease  trap. 

273.  How  should  a  putty  joint  be  made? 


Examination  Questions.  115 

274.  How  many  cubic  inches  are  there  in  a  gallon? 

275.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  water? 

276.  How   many   gallons  /  of   water   are   there   in   a 
cubic  foot? 

277.  What  are   the   proper  heights   for  setting  the 
different  fixtures? 

278.  How  do  you  find  the  contents  of  a  square  tank? 
Give  example. 

279.  How  do  you  find  the  contents  of  a  cylindrical 
tank?     Give  example. 

280.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  sweating  of  pipes. 

281.  Why   should   a   flow   pipe   be   larger   than   the 
return?  • 

282.  How  is  the  circumference  of  a  circle  found  if 
the  diameter  is  known? 

283.  How  do  you  find  the  pressure  per  square  inch, 
the  head  being  known? 

284.  How  do  you  find  the  head  when  the  pressure 
is  known? 

285.  How  can  the  lateral  pressure  of  water  on  the 
side  of  a  tank  be  found? 

286.  Why  is  the  supply  taken  to  the  bottom  of  the 
range  boiler? 

287.  Why  does  the  hot  water  rise  to  the  top  of  the 
boiler? 

288.  What   is   the   objection   to   bowls   with   patent 

overflow? 

289.  What  is  a  check  valve,  and  where  used? 

290.  What  weight  of  lead  should  be  used  for  a  tank 
lining? 

291.  Where  should  the  overflow  from  an  attic  tank 
be  taken? 

292.  How  long  would  it  take  to  empty  a  ioo-gallon 
boiler  through  a  i-inch  pipe,  10  feet  long? 

293.  What  is  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  equal  in  capac- 
ity to  a  2-inch,  i^-inch  and  i-inch  pipe  combined? 


n6  Examination  Questions. 

294.  What  would  be  the  size  of  a  tank  5  feet  deep 
that  holds  500  gallons? 

295.  What  is  the  weight  of  water  in  a  tank  holding 
200  gallons? 

296.  Why  are  submerged  ball-cocks  objectionable? 

297.  If  more  than  two  water  closets  are  to  be  back 
aired,  what  size  of  pipe  should  be  used? 

298.  If  the  back  air  pipes  from  a  lavatory  and  from 
a  bath  tub  are  run  together,,  what  size  must  be  used 
beyond? 

299.  How  far  from  a  window  may  a  vent  pipe  term- 
inate? 

300.  How  far  should  soil  pipe  extend  above  the  roof? 

301.  How  far  should   the  fresh  air  inlet  terminate 
from  doors  and  windows? 

302.  Where  should  the  back  air  pipe  connect  onto  a 
trap? 

303.  Why   should    a    room    be   ventilated    near    the 
floor? 

304.  Why    should    a    room    be    ventilated    near    the 
ceiling? 

305.  If  sent  to  a  house  on  complaint  of  escape  of 
sewer  gas,  how  would  you  proceed  to  find  the  leak? 

306.  Why  is  a  boiler  tube  carried  to  the  bottom  of 
a  boiler? 

307.  How   would   you   protect   a  water   closet  from 
freezing? 

308.  How    would    you    apply    the    final    test    to    a 
plumbing  system? 

309.  What  causes  hammering  in  the  range  boiler? 

310.  Describe  a  circulation  hot  water  supply  job. 

311.  Name   the   causes   of  poor   circulation   between 
the   range  boiler  and  the  water  front. 

312.  How  should  the  range  boiler  be  connected  to 
the  water  front   when  located  on   the   floor  below   it? 

313.  What   is   the  result   of  a  sag  in  the  flow  pipe 
between  range  and  boiler? 


Examination  Questions.  117 

314.  What    is    a    septic    sewage    tank,    and    where 
used? 

315.  What    is    a    stop-and-waste    cock    and    where 
used? 

316.  What  is  friction? 

317.  What  is  a   flap  valve? 

318.  Name  essential  points  in  connecting  the  house 
drain  with  the  sewer. 

319.  Describe  a  syphon. 

320.  What  is   the   objection   to   too   great  depth  of 
trap  seal? 

321.  In  what  ways  may  a  trap  lose  its  seal? 

322.  What  kinds  of  wood  are  best  for  tanks? 

323.  What  is  a  tell-tale  pipe? 

324.  What  is  the  continuous  vent? 

325.  What    are    the    advantages    of    the    continuous 
vent? 

326.  In    what    way    is    the    local    vent    applied    to 
urinals? 

327.  Name  different  styles   of  urinals   used  in  pub- 
lic buildings. 

328.  Show    different    methods    of    connecting    inlet 
and  outlet  pipes  to  the  drum  trap. 

329.  What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  these  dif- 
ferent methods? 

330.  Show  different  methods   of  venting  S  traps. 

331.  What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  these  dif- 
ferent methods? 

332.  How   may   a    cleanout   be   attached   to   a   bath 
S  trap  so  that  it  may  be  accessible  from  above? 

333.  Is  a  cleanout  on  the  trap  vent  of  value? 

334.  Describe    the    propefr    plumbing    of    a    horse- 
stall. 

335.  How  may  a  water  closet  be   properly  vented 
other  than  from  the  lead  bend? 


u8  Examination  Questions. 

336.  How  may  a  cesspool  be  so  constructed  as  to 
have    the    advantages    of    both    the    leeching    and    the 
water-tight  cesspool? 

337.  Describe     a     system     of     subsoil     disposal     of 
sewage. 

338.  What   is   the   Durham   system   of  plumbing? 

339-     What    are    the    advantages    and    disadvantages 
of  the  Durham  system? 

340.  How  may   the  water   closet   or   any   other  fix- 
ture be  installed  without  the  use  of  lead  work? 

341.  Describe  the  plumbing  for  a  line  of  refrigera- 
tors. 

342.  Describe   the   operation   of   an   automatic   sew- 
age lift. 

343.  How  is  sewage  disposed  of,  which  collects  at 
points  below  the  sewer  level? 

344.  What    is    meant    by    the    "  roughing-in "    of    a 
plumbing  system? 

345.  How  is  the  plumbing  system  prepared  for  the 
water  test? 

346.  Name  the   different  methods  and  requirements 
for  supporting  soil-piping. 

347.  Compare    the    siphon-jet    and    washout    water 
closets. 

348.  Should  the  use  of  non-syphonable  traps  with- 
out vents  be  allowed? 

349.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  trap  vents  becom- 
ing useless? 

350.  What  style  of  venting  is  attended  by  the  least 
amount  of  trap  vent  stoppage? 

351.  Why  does  water  freeze  at  the  surface  first? 

352.  Why  does  salt  prevent  water  from  freezing? 

353.  What  is  ventilation? 

354.  What  is  the  best  way  to  protect  the  ends  of 
soil  pipe  from  the  entrance  of  refuse? 

355.  Name  different  ways  of  protecting  pipes  from 
frost . 


Examination  Questions.  119 

356.  Explain  why  a  mixture   of  salt  freezes  water 
pipes. 

357.  How  can  it  be  proven  that  the  air  of  a  room 
is  in  constant  motion? 

358.  Why  does  smoke  rise  in  a  chimney? 

359.  Why  is   a   short   chimney  liable   to   have  poor 
draft,  and  why  is  a  very  large  chimney  also  liable  to 
the  same  trouble? 

360.  What   substances    are    the   best   conductors   of 
heat? 

361.  What  substances  are  the  poorest  conductors  of 
'heat? 

362.  Why  are  liquids  poor  conductors  of  heat? 

363.  Why  will  oil  on  the  surface  of  water  prevent 
freezing?  « 

364.  To  what  temperature  can  water  be  heated  if 
exposed  to  the  air? 

365.  When  is  steam  visible? 

366.  What  is  the  effect  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  life? 

367.  What  is  a  splash  stick,  and  what  is  its  use? 

368.  How  should  very  high  stacks  be  tested? 

369.  How  is  air-lock  caused  on  the  drainage  system? 

370.  How   is   air-lock   caused   on   hot   water   supply 
pipes? 

371.  Explain    the    action    of    the    automatic    cellar 
drainer. 

372.  Wlhat  is   the   purpose   of  the   automatic   cellar 
drainer? 

373.  Explain  the  action  of  an  automatic  flush  tank. 

374.  Explain    the    action    of    an    automatic    sewage 
siphon. 

375.  What  is  a  blind  vent,  and  what  may  be  said 
against  it? 

376.  Name  various   points    on   the   drainage   system 
where  cleanouts  should  be  located. 

377.  What  is  a  circuit  vent? 


I2O  Examination  Questions. 

378.  What  is  a  loop  vent? 

379.  On    what    particular   classes    of   work   are    cir- 
cuit and  loop  vents  of  value? 

380.  Describe  the  harmful  action  of  electrolysis  on 
underground  piping. 

381.  What  is  a  soil  vent? 

382.  What  is  a  waste  vent? 

383.  What  is  a  house  drain? 

384.  What  is  a  house  sewer? 

385.  Is   it   proper  to   serve   a   line   of  lavatories   or 
sinks  with  one  trap? 

386.  Explain   the   pneumatic   water   supply   system. 

387.  Give  some  of  the  requirements  in  running  rain 
leaders. 

388.  Give    some    of    the    requirements    in    installing 
floor  and  yard  drains. 

389.  What  is  a  surface  sewer? 

390.  What  is  a  standing  overflow? 

391.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  submerged  trap 
cleanout? 

392.  What  is  the  action  and  purpose  of  an  automatic 
sump  tank? 

393.  What    may    be    said    concerning    the    lighting 
and  ventilation  of  toilet  rooms? 

394.  Why  is  the  continuous  vent  preferable  to  the 
crown  vent? 

395.  Why  are  individual  water  closets  preferable  to 
range  water  closets? 

396.  Why   are    recessed    drainage    fittings    used    on 
drainage  systems? 

397.  Why  should  a  leeching  cesspool  be  located  as 
close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible? 

398.  Why  should  metal  not  be  exposed  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  urinal? 

399.  Why   should   not  wrought  iron   drainage  pipe 
be  used  underground? 

400.  What    is    the   principal    argument    against    the 
use  of  the  main  trap? 


APPENDIX. 


What  is  continuous  venting? 

Several  examples  of  continuous  venting  are  shown 
in  illustration  on  page  123.  It  consists,  as  shown 
in  No.  i,  of  connecting  the  outlet  from  the  trap  di- 
rectly into  a  vertical  fitting,  the  bottom  of  the  fit- 
ting serving  as  a  waste,  and  the  top  serving  for  the 
vent  connection.  Nos.  2,  3  and  4  show  other  examples 
of  this  method.  In  the  case  of  the  water  closet,  contin- 
uous venting  is  obtained  by  continuing  the  branch  soil 
pipe,  full  size,  beyond  the  line  of  water  closets  and 
upward  through  the  roof  or  into  a  line  of  vent. 
Through  this  line  the  water  closet  traps  are  sup- 
plied with  air,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  results  are 
as  satisfactory  as  when  each  water  closet  is  separately 
vented. 

What  is  the  advantage  of  continuous  venting? 

There  is  far  less  danger  of  such  a  vent  connection 
becoming  fouled  with  grease,  etc.,  and  finally  closing 
up.  The  supply  of  air  is  brought  in  less  directly  upon 
the  trap  seal,  and  consequently  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion is  lessened.  In  many  instances  continuous  vent- 
ing results  in  a  saving  of  expense  both  in  material 
and  labor. 

What  kind  of  fittings  are  generally  used  on  the  con- 
nection for  a  continuous  vent  for  other  fixtures  than 
water  closets? 

Fittings  of  the  T — Y  style  are  generally  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Why  may  not  Y  branches  be  used  for  this  purpose? 

On  most  work  the  Y  branch  would  bring  the  vent 
connection  too  low  to  properly  guard  the  trap  against 
syphonage. 

(121) 


122  Appendix. 

In  what  special  way  may  the  continuous  vent  prin- 
ciple be  applied  to  a  stack  which  serves  fixtures  on 
two  floors  only? 

When  the  fixtures  are  conveniently  located,  as  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  partition,  the  plan  shown  in  illus- 
tration No.  3,  on  page  123  may  be  followed  with  a 
considerable  saving  in  expense. 

Why  could  not  this  plan  be  followed  if  waste  from 
more  than  two  floors  entered  the  stack? 

For  the  reason  that  the  waste  from  the  third  floor 
would  necessarily  have  to  enter  a  pipe  which  served 
as  a  vent  for  one  of  the  other  floors. 

What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  different  meth- 
ods of  venting  S  traps? 

Referring  to  illustration  on  page  105  we  give  four 
methods  of  venting. 

That  which  is  most  acceptable  is  No.  4,  which  illus- 
trates the  continuous  vent,  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken,  naming  its  advantages. 

No.  i  shows  the  vent  taken  off  the  crown  of  the 
trap.  This  method  causes  direct  contact  of  the  air 
supply  with  the  seal,  causing  evaporation  at  its  high- 
est rate.  The  vent  connection  is  almost  certain  to 
fill  up  eventually  as  is  that  of  No.  2  also.  No.  2  has 
the  advantage  of  bringing  the  air  in  less  direct  con- 
tact with  the  seal  however.  In  the  case  of  half-S  and 
94-S  traps,  the  ver»t  may  often  be  placed  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  seal  and  still  protect  the  trap, 
and  with  less  danger  of  stoppage  of  the  vent  opening. 
In  order  to  ensure  a  good  supply  of  air,  however,  it 
should  not  be  placed  at  a  level  lower  than  that  of 
the  trap  seal. 

How  may  a  cleanout  be  attached  to  an  S  bath  trap 
so  that  it  will  be  accessible  from  the  bath  room  with- 
out the  removal  of  flooring? 

Such  a  cleanout  is  shown  in  No.  5  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  page  105. 

Is  a  cleanout  on  the  trap  vent  of  value? 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  vents  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  free  from  stoppage,  but  as  this  has 


CONTINUOUS  VENTING. 
(123) 


124  Appendix. 

proved  an  impossibility,  it  would  seem  that  a  clean- 
out  to  enable  the  removal- of  such  stoppage  would  be 
of  value.  It  is  to  be  considered,  however,  that  even 
though  the  vent  opening  may  need  clearing  out  badly, 
its  position  is  such  that  its  condition  is  not  known 
usually,  and  furthermore  the  average  person  does  not 
understand  its  purpose,  or  how  to  remedy  the  trouble 
by  means  of  it. 

What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  different  waste 
and  vent  connections  for  drum  traps? 

In  the  illustration  on  page  105  we  show  nine  differ- 
ent methods  for  this  work.  No.  6  represents  prob- 
ably the  most  common  method.  The  chief  objection 
to  this  method  is  the  fact  that  if  the  gasket  does  not 
make  tight,  direct  communication  will  exist.  This 
will  be  the  case  also  when  the  trap  screw  is  taken 
out  for  cleaning.  The  chief  advantage  of  No.  7  is 
that  protection  against  the  entrance  of  sewer  gas  is 
guaranteed  even  when  the  trap  screw  is  removed. 
An  objection,  however,  is  that  the  outlet  from  the 
trap  is  liable  to  fill  up.  No.  8  overcomes  the  objec- 
tionable features  of  Nos.  6  and  7,  but  the  pipe  dipping 
down  into  the  seal  is  an  objection,  as  it  presents  ad- 
ditional opportunity  for  the  collection  of  grease,  etc. 
The'  objection  to  a  vent  through  the  cleanout  cover, 
as  shown  in  No.  9,  is  that  whenever  the  trap  is 
cleaned  the  vent  pipe  must  be  twisted  back,  and  fur- 
thermore air  is  brought  in  directly  upon  the  seal, 
thereby  increasing  evaporation.  The  vent  opening  is 
very  liable  to  fill  up  also. 

The  method  of  Fig.  10  is  a  poor  one,  for  the  rea- 
son that  in  the  event  of  the  stoppage  of  the  vent,  the 
trap  will  syphon  almost  as  readily  as  an  S  trap.  The 
danger  of  syphonage  is  averted  by  the  method  of 
No.  n,  in  which  the  upper  end  of  the  pipe  inside  the 
trap  is  left  open.  In  this  case,  however,  the  same 
danger  exists  as  with  No.  I,  and  in  addition  the  pipe 
inside  acts  as  a  means  of  collecting  grease,  etc.,  and 
eventually  filling  the  trap.  No.  12  shows  a  very  good 
method,  the  cleanout  being  located  at  the  bottom,  so 
that  when  the  gasket  is  not  tight  the  fact  is  made  known 
by  leakage.  The  cleanout  in  this  position  also  en- 
ables the  contents  to  be  cleaned  out  very  readily.  No. 


Appendix.  125 

13  shows  the  same  advantage  as  No.  12,  although  the 
presence  of  the  pipe  inside  the  trap  is  objectionable. 
No.  14  shows  an  example  of  continuous  venting,  the 
advantages  of  which  have  been  previously  explained. 
Continuous  venting  applied  to  No.  12,  we  believe  will 
make  a  very  satisfactory  method. 

Is  the  local  vent  applied  to  other  fixtures  than 
water  closets? 

It  may  be  used  to  advantage  on  slop  sinks,  and  on 
urinals,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  latter  fixture 
when  used  in  public  toilet  rooms. 

How  is  the  waste  from  a  line  of  urinals  disposed  of? 

A  common  practice  is  tUe  use  of  slate  urinals,  pro- 
vided with  perforated  flush  pipes  which  continually 
wash  the  surface  of  the  slate,  the  flush  entering  a 
gutter  at  the  back  of  the  urinal  stalls.  The  gutter  is 
graded  and  delivers  its  contents  into  the  drainage  sys- 
tem through  a  trap  properly  vented. 

Another  common  method  is  the  trapping  of  each 
separate  urinal,  the  waste  from  each  generally  en- 
tering a  horizontal  line  of  brass  waste  pipe  running 
behind  the  back  of  the  stalls.  Continuous  venting 
may  be  applied  to  advantage  in  this  work. 

A  third  method,  but  somewhat  expensive,  and  par- 
ticularly applicable  for  comfort  stations,  is  the  use 
of  porcelain  or  earthenware  stalls,  the  upper  surface 
of  the  floor  slab  being  counter-sunk  so  that  all  li- 
quids drain  to  the  center,  where  they  enter  the  dram- 
age  system  through  separate  traps.  These  traps 
may  be  supplied  with  a  local  vent  leading  »to  a  heated 
flue. 

Describe  the  plumbing  for  a  horse-stall. 

For  this  purpose  there  is  made  a  special  sink,  the 
four  sides  of  which  pitch  to  the  centre,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  guard  to  prevent  the  passage  of  heavy 
substances.  This  sink  is  set  lengthwise  of  the  stall, 
and  toward  its  entrance,  and  above  the  sink  is  set  a 
hinged  trap  door,  made  with  sufficient  spaces  to  al- 
low liquids  to  pass  freely  into  the  sink.  The  connec- 


126  Appendix. 

tion  to  the  sink  is  arranged  so  that  it  may  be  calked 
directly  into  the  hub  of  cast  iron  pipe.  The  waste 
for  the  horse-stall  is  of  cast  iron  pipe,  and  should  be 
provided  with  a  trap  properly  vented.  Two  inch  pipe 
is  generally  used  for  a  single  stall.  % 

In  what  other  way  than  from  the  lead  bend,  may  a 
water  closet  be  properly  vented? 

It  may  be  vented  from  the  vent  hub  of  a  vented 
T — Y,  or  from  the  vent  hub  of  a  vented  sanitary  tee, 
of  which  there  are  several  different  forms. 

What  is  the  flush  valve  and  its  use? 

The  flush  valve  is  a  device  in  several  different  pat- 
ented forms,  used  for  the  flushing  of  water  closets, 
whereby  the  use  of  a  flush  tank  is  avoided.  The  valve 
is  opened  by  means  of  a  lever  or  push  button,  is  of 
the  slow  closing  type,  and  before  automatically  clos- 
ing, will  deliver  sufficient  water  to  thoroughly  flush 
the  fixture. 

In  what  ways  is  the  flush  valve  operated? 

It  may  be  operated  either  by  direct  pressure  or  by 
tank  pressure. 

How  is  the  sewage  from  fixtures  located  below  the 
sewer  level  disposed  of? 

It  is  sometimes  carried  into  a  receiving  tank  or 
cesspool  located  at  a  lower  level  than  that  of  the  low- 
est fixture,  and  forced  by  pumps  into  the  main  house 
sewer.  Generally  however,  especially  in  the  case  of 
large  city  buildings,  it  is  disposed  of  by  means  of 
special  apparatus  known  as  automatic  sewage  lifts,  of 
which  there  are  several  patented  forms. 

Give  a  general  description  of  the  operation  of  the 
automatic  sewage  lift. 

This  device  is  operated  by  various  means,  including 
water  pressure,  steam,  electricity,  and  compressed  air. 
They  are  usually  provided  with  cross  connections  ar- 
ranged so  that  either  of  two  sources  of  power  may 
be  used.  This  is  done  to  provide  against  the  dis- 
abling of  the  entire  system  due  to  a  breakdown  in 


.-.--PR 


THE  AUTOMATIC  CEU,AR  DRAINER. 
THE  AUTOMATIC  SEWAGE  I.IFT. 


(127) 


128  Appendix. 

power,  which  might  occur  at  any  time  if  dependent 
entirely  on  one  source  of  power.  The  drainage  from 
the  fixtures  at  low  levels  is  conducted  into  a  sewage 
tank  or  receiver,  the  inlet  pipe  being  provided  with 
a  check  valve. 

Inside  the  tank  there  is  a  float  or  bucket,  which 
rises  with  the  sewage  in  the  tank.  When  the  sewage 
has  risen  to  a  certain  point,  the  rod  connected  to  the 
float  opens  a  valve  which  admits  the  compressed  air 
or  steam  upon  the  surface  of  the,  sewage  in  the  tank. 
As  the  pressure  valve  opens,  the  same  motion  closes 
the  valve  in  the  vent  pipe  connected  to  the  tank,  and 
the  pressure  itself  closes  the  check  valve  on  the  in- 
let to  the  tank.  There  being  no  other  path  of  escape 
for  the  contents,  they  are  forced  through  the  outlet 
pipe,  and  up  into  the  main  house  drain.  As  the  sew.- 
age  in  the  tank  falls,  the  float  falls  also,  gradually 
closing  the  pressure  valve.  When  the  pressure  valve 
closes  the  vent  valve  opens,  and  the  lift  is  in  readiness 
for  another  operation.  See  page  127, 

How  may  large  bodies  of  sewage  be  handled  by 
means  of  the  automatic  sewage  lift? 

By  connecting  a  number  of  these  lifts  together, 
they  may  be  made  to  handle  many  hundreds  of  gal- 
lons per  minute. 

What  is  an  automatic  sump  tank? 

An  automatic  sump  tank  li  a  device  for  disposing 
of  the  sub-soil  drainage,  floor  drainage,  etc.,  collect- 
ing at  points  below  the  sewer  level. 

What  is  the  mode  of  operation  of  the  automatic 
sump  tank? 

The  drainage  is  conducted  into  the  tank  and  dis- 
charged in  practically  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
automatic  sewage  lift. 

How  is  the  plumbing  system  made  ready  for  the 
water  test? 

After  the  "  roughing-in "  is  completed,  that  is  the 
soil-piping  and  venting,  but  before  the  fixtures  and 
their  traps  are  placed  in  position,  all  waste  and  vent 


Appendix.  129 

ends  are  closed  by  soldering  or  capping,  and  all  soil 
pipe  openings  closed  with  the  exception  of  the  roof 
pipe.  The  system  is  then  ready  for  the  water  to  fill 
it. 

Describe     a    properly     constructed     refrigerator 
drip  pan. 

The  box  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  so  lined 
that  the  lining  will  pitch  from  all  sides  sharply  to  the 
outlet  hole,  in  order  to  allow  sediment  to  drain  off  as 
much  as  possible.  To  the  under  side  of  the  pan  the 
refrigerator  pipe  should  be  soldered.  Just  below  the 
top  of  the  pipe  a  strainer  should  be  placed  inside  the 
pipe,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  foreign  substances, 
and  a  screw  cleanout  should  be  placed  in  the  outlet 
where  it  enters  the  pan,  to  allow  the  waste  to  be  capped 
over  during  the  part  of  the  year  when  the  refrigerator 
is  not  in  use. 

What  is  the  Durham  system  of  plumbing? 

In  operation  and  in  all  its  principles,  the  Durham 
system  does  not  differ  from  the  ordinary  system  of 
plumbing.  The  only  difference  between  the  two  sys- 
tems is  that  the  piping  of  the  Durham  system  is  of 
wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  all  joints  are  screw-joints. 

What  style  of  fittings  are  used  on  the  Durham  sys- 
tem? 

Cast  iron  screw  fittings  of  the  recessed  style. 

Why  are  recessed  cast  iron  fittings  better  adapted 
to  drainage  work  than  fittings  such  as  steam  or  water 
fittings? 

For  the  reason  that  in  using  recessed  fittings,  the 
inside  of  the  fitting  and  the  inside  of  the  pipe  line  up, 
while  in  the  use  of  other  fittings  the  pipe  projects  in- 
side the  fitting,  forming  shoulders  with  sharp  edges, 
at  which  points  accumulations  of  lint,  etc.,  may  easily 
collect.  The  use  of  recessed  fittings  is  not  accom- 
panied by  this  objectionable  feature. 

What  is  the  chief  advantage  claimed  for  the  Dur- 
ham system? 


130  Appendix. 

It  is  claimed  by  advocates  of  the  Durham  system 
that  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  screw  joint  is  as  strong 
and  rigid  as  the  pipe  itself,  the  Durham  system  is 
stronger  and  more  substantial  than  the  common  cast 
iron  system. 

What  great  objection  is  there  to  the  Durham  sys- 
tem? 

Experience  shows  that  for  drainage  purposes,  pipe 
of  wrought  iron  or  steel  is  far  shorter  lived  than  cast 
iron  pipe.  The  result  is  that  while  the  cast  iron  sys- 
tem lasts  indefinitely,  the  Durham  system  must  be  re- 
newed or  pulled  out  after  a  period  of  years. 

In  installing  the  Durham  system:  what  course  is  fol- 
lowed regarding  underground  piping? 

All  underground  piping  must  be  of  cast  iron  with 
calked  joints,  for  the  reason  that  the  wrought  iron  or 
steel  pipe  rusts  out  so  much  more  rapidly. 

Is  the  use  of  lead  increasing  in  favor? 

Much  of  the  best  and  largest  work  is  now  being 
installed  without  the  use  of  any  lead  pipe  whatever. 

How  may  the  water  closet  be  installed  without  the 
use  of  lead  bend? 

By  the  use  of  a  floor  flange  which  either  calks  or 
screws  into  the  soil  pipe,  and  the  use  of  cast  iron  fit- 
tings. 

Why  is  the  use  of  the  ordinary  leeching  cesspool 
often  to  be  looked  upon  with  disfavor? 

After  a  time  the  joints  and  crevices  of  the  cess- 
pool fill  up  with  solid  matter,  and  if  there  is  no  over- 
flow to  carry  the  liquid  portion  of  the  waste  to  a 
second  cesspool,  the  cesspool  overflows,  saturates  the 
surrounding  soil,  and  in  many  ways  becomes  a  nui- 
sance. 

How  may  a  cesspool  be  constructed  so  that  it  shall 
have  the  advantages  of  both  the  water-tight  and  the 
leeching  cesspool? 


Appendix.  131 

An  excavation  is  first  made  of  considerably  greater 
dimensions  than  the  cesspool  itself.  The  bottom  is 
filled  in  with  a  heavy  foundation  of  broken  stone,  and 
upon  this  the  brick  cesspool  with  brick  bottom  is 
built.  A  considerable  space  should  be  left  between 
the  brick  work  and  the  excavated  ground  on  all  sides, 
this  space  being  filled  with  broken  stone.  The  brick 
cesspool  is  made  water-tight  by  means  of  a  coating 
of  Portland  cement  inside.  The  top  should  be  arched 
somewhat,  and  provided  with  a  manhole  cover.  At  a 
proper  height  overflow  pipes  should  be  cemented  in- 
to the  brick-work,  all  on  the  same  level.  The  outer 
end  of  the  overflows  should  terminate  at  the  center 
of  the  broken  stone  filling.  By  means  of  the  over- 
flows, the  liquid  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  cess- 
pool are  carried  off,  and  allowed  to  leech  off  through 
the  surrounding  soil,  while  the  solid  portion  is  re- 
tained in  the  cesspool,  and  may  be  emptied  when  de- 
sired. The  solid  matter  should  never  be  allowed  to 
rise  to  such  a  point  that  it  may  pass  out  through  the 
overflows  or  close  them  up. 

Why  should  a  cesspool  not  be  located  too  low  in 
the  ground? 

For  the  reason  that  the  bacteria  of  the  soil,  which 
attack  and  disintegrate  the  impurities  of  the  sewage, 
must  have  air  to  live  upon,  and  the  air  does  not  reach 
them  at  levels  far  below  the  surface. 

When  there  is  no  system  of  sewers  to  handle  the 
sewage  from  a  residence,  institution,  or  from  a  num- 
ber of  dwellings,  how  may  this  work  usually  be  ac- 
complished? 

By  means  of  a  septic  sewage  tank  for  receiving  the 
waste,  in  connection  with  an  automatic  sewage  sy- 
phon, by  means  of  which  the  contents  of  the  septic 
tank  are  siphoned  off  onto  filter  beds,  into  a  system 
of  underground  filtration,  or  other  means  of  final  dis- 
posal. 

Give  a  general  description  of  the  construction  and 
operation  of  the  septic  tank. 

As  generally  constructed  it  consists  of  three  or 
more  separate  compartments,  the  plant  being  located 


132  Appendix. 

underground  usually.  The  sewage  is  delivered  direct- 
ly into  what  is  known  as  the  grit  chamber,  which  con- 
nects by  overflow  with  one  or  more  settling  cham- 
bers. Most  of  the  solid  matter  remains  in  the  grit 
chamber,  the  liquid  overflowing  into  the  settling 
chamber  or  chambers,  and  becoming  clearer  in  each 
successive  compartment.  From  the  last  settling 
chamber  it  overflows  into  the  discharge  chamber, 
connected  to  which  is  an  automatic  sewage  syphon. 
(See  page  113.) 

Explain  the  action  of  the  sewage  syphon. 

This  is  a  device  made  in  several  patented  forms,  all 
working  somewhat  on  the  same  principle.  The  sy- 
phon is  connected  to  the  discharge  chamber  of  the 
septic  tank  at  its  outlet.  When  the  sewage  in  this 
chamber  reaches  a  certain  height  it  automatically 
starts  the  syphon  which  quickly  syphons  off  the  con- 
tents, delivering  them  into  a  pipe  which  conveys  the 
sewage  to  the  point  of  final  disposal.  (See  page  113.) 

•J  Explain  the  chemical  or  bacterial  action  that  takes 
/place  in  the  septic  tank  and  is  essential  to  its  proper 
operation. 

It  will  be  seen  that  under  ordinary  conditions  the 
heavy  matter  entering  the  tank,  if  carried  off  would 
foul  the  filter  bed  or  sub-soil  system  very  quickly, 
and  if  allowed  to  remain  in  its  original  state,  would 
quickly  fill  the  grit  and  settling  chamber  with  dis- 
astrous results  to  the  proper  working  of  the  plant. 

Experiments  of  recent  years  have  proved,  however, 
that  bacterial  action,-  if  allowed  sufficient  opportunity, 
will  completely  disintegrate  and  liquify  almost  all 
solid  matter,  even  substances  such  as  leather,  bones, 
etc.,  provided  it  is  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  The 
bacteria  which  perform  this  work  multiply  rapidly, 
and  live  on  the  surface  of  the  sewage  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  different  compartments  of  the  tank.  It  is  es- 
sential, however,  that  they  be  left  undisturbed.  Con- 
sequently the  entrance  of  waste  and  the  overflow 
must  be  accomplished  with  as  little  commotion  as  pos- 
sible. The  solids  rise  to  the  top  and  form  a  sort  of 
scum  or  crust,  and  upon  the  under  side  of  this  the 
bacteria  make  their  strongest  attack.  In  a  very  few 
hours  bacterial  action  will  disintegrate  and  liquify 


Appendix.  133 

most  substances  naturally  entering  the  sewage.  It 
is  essential  that  the  operation  of  the  syphon  be  at 
sufficiently  long  intervals  to  allow  this  bacterial  ac- 
tion to  take  place  completely. 

Why  does  water  begin  to  freeze  at  the  surface? 

For  the  reason  that  the  surface  is  in  contact  with 
the  air,  and  the  air  absorbs  and  carries  away  the  heat 
of  the  water. 

Water  being  a  poor  conductor,  it  is  slow  in  freezing 
below  the  surface,  only  freezing  as  the  water  next  to 
the  ice  becomes  chilled  and  the  heat  contained  passes 
out  into  the  air  through  the  pores  of  the  ice. 

Why  does  salt  prevent  the  freezing  of  water? 

Salt  water  freezes  much  more  slowly  than  fresh,  a 
temperature  25  degrees  below  freezing  point  being  re- 
quired in  the  freezing  of  salt  water.  This  explains 
why  salt  thrown  upon  ice  causes  it  to  melt.  The  salt 
dissolves  the  crystals  of  ice,  thereby  forming  a  fluid. 
Whenever  a  solid  is  converted  into  a  fluid,  heat  is  ab- 
sorbed, and  the  cold  thereby  made  more  intense. 
This  explains  why  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ice  is  a  freez- 
ing mixture. 

What  is  ventilation? 

Ventilation  is  a  continual  change  of  air. 

How  can  it  be  proven  that  the  air  of  a  room  is  in 
constant  motion? 

If  a  flame  is  held  near  the  crevice  at  the  top  of  a 
door,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  flame  is  blown  out- 
ward, while  if  it  is  placed  near  the  crevice*  at  the  floor, 
the  flame  will  be  blown  inward. 

Why  does  smoke  rise  in  a  chimney? 

Because  the  air  in  passing  over  the  fire  becomes 
heated  and  therefore  lighter,  consequently  rising,  and 
carrying  the  smoke  with  it  up  through  the  chimney. 

Why  is  a  short  chimney  liable  to  have  poor  draft? 

Because  the  smoke  simply  rolls  out  of  the  chimney 
before  it  has  attained  full  velocity,  and  as  the  rarified 


134  Appendix. 

air  passes  very  slowly  up  the  chimney,  fresh  air  flows 
equally  as  slowly  toward  the  fire  to  supply  it  with 
oxygen. 

Why  is  a  very  large  chimney  liable  to  have  poor 
draft? 

Because  the  flue  is  so  large  that  much  of  the  air 
which  goes  up  the  chimney  does  not  become  heated, 
and  mixing  with  the  cold  air,  ascends  very  slowly. 

What  are  soil  and  waste  vents? 

A  soil  vent  is  that  part  of  a  soil  stack  which  is 
above  the  waste  entrance  of  the  highest  fixture  on  it, 
and  a  waste  vent  is  the  same  part  of  a  waste  stack. 

How  should  batteries  of  lavatories  and  sinks  be 
trapped? 

Long  lines  or  batteries  of  fixtures  such  as  lavatories 
and  sinks  should  have  each  fixture  individually  trapped. 

Why  is  it  unsanitary  to  use  one  trap  only  to  serve  a 
long  line  of  fixtures? 

For  the  reason  that  there  must  necessarily  be  a  long 
line  of  fouled  waste  pipe  which  will  throw  out  foul 
odors  into  the  room  through  the  waste  outlet  of  each 
fixture. 

What  is  meant  by  the  conduction  of  heat? 

The  transmission  of  heat  from  one  body  to  another, 
when  the  two  bodies  are  in  contact. 

What  materials  convey  heat  most  readily? 

Metals,  such  as  gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron,  zinc,  and 
tin. 

What  materials  are  particularly  poor  conductors  of 
heat? 

Light  and  porous  bodies,  such  as  fur,  wool,  charcoal, 
wood,  etc. 

Are  liquids  good  conductors  of  heat? 

They  are  not,  for  the  reason  that  when  they  are 
heated,  evaporation  takes  place,  and  the  water  passes 
off  in  the  form  of  vapor. 


Appendix.  135 

How  does  the  presence  of  oil  prevent  freezing? 

When  oil  rests  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid,  it  pre- 
vents heat  from  leaving  the  liquid,  as  it  is  a  poor  con- 
ductor. In  this  way  it  prevents  the  freezing  of  the 
liquid. 

Can  water  in  an  open  vessel  be  heated  above  212 
degrees? 

It  can  not,  for  the  reason  that  at  this  temperature 
it  is  converted  into  steam,  and  passes  off  as  a  vapor. 

Is  steam  visible? 

It  is  not,  but  in  coming  in  contact  with  the  air  it 
condenses  into  small  drops  which  are  visible. 

» 
What  are  the  effects  of  carbonic  acid  gas? 

It  acts  like  a  narcotic  poison,  and  if  in  sufficient 
quantity  is  fatal. 

What  is  the  chief  source  of  carbonic  acid  gas? 

It  is  generated  in  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matter,  and  is  thrown  off  in  the  breath  of 
human  beings  and  animals. 

What  is  the  best  method  of  testing  stacks  in  very 
high  buildings? 

Such  stacks  should  be  tested  in  sections  of  not  more 
than  75  ft.  in  length.  If  the  water  test  is  applied  to 
an  entire  stack  of  great  length,  the  pressure  of  such  a 
high  column  of  water  would  be  enormous,  and  far 
greater  than  the  piping  should  be  expected  to  stand. 

What  is  meant  by  a  blind  vent? 

It  sometimes  happens  in  the  plumbing  of  houses  in 
places  that  are  not  subject  to  plumbing  ordinances  and 
inspection,  that  unscrupulous  workmen  will  carry  the 
vents  from  fixtures  back  to  the  wall,  ending  them  at 
this  point  without  connecting  them  into  a  main  line 
of  vent.  They  are  sometimes  left  open,  and  some- 
times closed  with  a  rubber  packing.  Such  a  vent  is 
called  a  blind  vent,  and  is  of  the  most  unsanitary 
nature,  as  through  the  vent,  direct  communication  with 
the  sewer  exists. 


136  Appendix. 

How  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  a 
leeching  cesspool  be  located? 

It  should  set  as  close  to  the  surface  as  possible. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  bacteria  which  exist 
in  the  soil,  and  the  action  of  which  purifies  the 
liquids  leeching  from  the  cesspool,  exist  only  within  a 
very  few  feet  of  the  surface.  They  depend  upon  air 
for  life,  and  as  the  air  does  not  penetrate  sufficiently 
to  lower  depths,  they  cannot  live  at  such  levels. 

What  kind  of  pipe  should  be  used  for  drainage  un- 
derground? 

Inside  the  foundations  of  buildings  nothing  but  cast 
iron  pipe  should  be  used  underground,  and  outside 
either  cast  iron  or  'earthenware  pipe. 

Wrought  iron,  even  though  galvanized,  should  not 
be  used  underground,  as  it  is  readily  attacked  by  mois- 
ture and  various  substances  contained  in  the  earth, 
and  its  length  of  life  is  therefore  very  short. 

What  is  the  cause  of  air-lock? 

Air-lock  is  a  frequent  trouble  on  both  the  drainage 
and  the  hot  water  supply  system.  On  the  drainage 
system  it  is  caused  principally  by  double  trapping, 
under  which  circumstances  the  air  standing  between 
the  two  traps  prevents  the  easy  passage  of  waste  with 
the  consequent  greater  liability  of  stoppage.  In  the 
case  of  hot  water  supply  systems,  unless  properly 
piped,  air  will  collect  at  high  points,  and  seriously 
effect  the  circulation. 

What  section  of  the  drainage  system  is  called  the 
house  sewer? 

That  section  of  the  drainage  system  which  extends 
through  the  cellar,  into  which  all  soil  and  waste 
stacks  and  branches  deliver  their  waste.  The  house 
drain  extends  just  outside  the  cellar  wall,  where  it 
connects  into  the  house  sewer. 

What  section  of '  the  drainage  system  is  called  the 
house  drain? 

That  section  of  the  drainage  piping,  usually  running 
from  the  point  where  the  house  drain  ends,  to  the 
sewer  in  the  street. 


Appendix.  137 

In  what  manner  are  underground  drainage,  water 
and  gas  pipes  seriously  effected  by  electric  currents? 

The  action  of  electrolysis  is  essentially  the  action  of 
the  electric  battery,  which  consists  of  two  metallic 
plates  in  a  saline  solution. 

As  is  well  known,  in  the  action  of  the  battery,  one 
of  the  plates  constantly  wears  away.  The  same  ac- 
tion takes  place  underground  in  many  cases,  due 
principally  to  the  escape  of  the  electric  current  from 
electric  railway  circuits,  the  pipes  in  this  case  rep- 
resenting that  metal  in  the  battery  which  is  attacked 
and  destroyed.  Generally  the  electric  current  of  the 
railway  system  is  carried  from  the  power  station 
through  'heavy  wires,  and  returns  through  the  tracks. 
The  latter  are  not  insulated  or  protected  in  any  way, 
and  if  the  current  finds  an  easier  passage  through 
some  nearby  pipe  than  through  the  rail,  it  will  jump 
from  the  latter  into  the  pipe,  later  on  returning  to  the 
rail  again. 

Whenever  there  are  two  paths  for  the  current,  it 
will  divide  between  them,  the  greater  part  of  the  cur- 
rent taking  the  path  which  presents  the  least  resist- 
ance. The  points  where  rails  come  together  represent 
the  points  of  greatest  resistance  in  the  rails,  and  are 
the  points  where  the  most  trouble  occurs.  If  the 
current  passed  into  the  pipe  and  did  not  have  to  leave 
it  again,  no  damage  would  result'  to  the  pipe,  but  at 
those  points  where  the  current  jumps  from  the  pipes 
back  to  the  track  or  to  some  other  conductor,  the 
pipe  becomes  corroded  and  finally  eaten  entirely 
through.  No  harm  results  however,  at  poTnts  where 
the  current  enters  the  pipe. 

What  provision  is  now  made  in  many  cities  to 
handle  rain  water  and  other  surface  waters  in  such  a 
way  that  they  may  not  have  to  enter  and  overload  the 
public  sewage  system? 

This  is  accomplished  by  installing  separate  sewer 
systems,  known  as  surface  sewers,  for  the  reception 
of  all  surface  water,  none  of  the  latter  being  carried 
into  the  regular  system  of  sewers. 

How  should  trap  cleanouts  be  located  to  give  the 
best  results? 


138  Appendix. 

They  should  be  placed  so  that  they  are  at  all  times 
under  water. 

The  advantage  of  such  submerged  cleanouts  is  that 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  the  passage  through 
defective  gaskets,  of  sewer  gases  and  odors,  any 
defect  being  at  once  made  apparent  by  the  leakage 
through  the  cleanout  cover.  Generally  traps  provided 
with  such  cleanouts  may  be  more  easily  cleaned. 

Why  is  the  use  of  exposed  metal  surfaces  to  be 
avoided  in  the  construction  of  urinals? 

For  the  reason  that  the  acids  of  the  waste  entering 
the  urinal  attack  metals  and  corrode  them,  thereby 
making  the  fixture  more  filthy  than  it  need  be. 

Describe  the  operation  of  the  pneumatic  water 
supply  system. 

The  operating  force  of  this  system  is  compressed 
air.  An  air-tight  storage  tank  is  used,  which  may  be 
placed  underground  or  in  the  basement  or  cellar,  thus 
doing  away  with  the  objectionable  attic  tank.  As 
water  is  pumped  into  the  tank,  the  air  already  con- 
tained in  the  tank  is  compressed,  the  amount  of  com- 
pression increasing  as  the  tank  fills.  By  means  of 
the  pressure  produced  by  this  compressed  air,  water 
may  be  delivered  by  this  system  under  as  high  pres- 
sure as  75  pounds,  which  is  ample  not  only  for  house 
and  stable  purposes,  but  also  for  garden  and  fire  use. 

If  sufficient  pressure  cannot  be  obtained  by  ordinary 
means,  a  special  valve  may  be  used  on  the  suction 
pipe,  which  will  draw  in  air  with  each  stroke  of  the 
pump,  in  any  desired  quantity.  On  large  work,  such 
as  the  supplying  of  water  under  pressure  to  institutions, 
small  towns,  etc.,  several  tanks  may  be  used  to  pro- 
vide the  necessary  storage,  and  if  necessary,  a  special 
air  pump  to  provide  air  pressure.  This  system  is  of 
great  value  in  sections  that  are  not  provided  with  a 
public  supply. 


INDEX. 


Air    Chamber,            .          .          .          .          .          .  45, 46 

Air,   Composition   of,       .....  58 

Expansion    of,           .....  52 

Motion  of  in  Room,         ....  133 

Air-lock, 66 

Course    of,        .          .    *     .          .          .          .  136 

Airoydrogen   Flame,          .....  67 

Alloy,         ....'....  59 

Appendix, J2i 

Atmospheric  Pressure,  Action  of,  etc.,     .         .44,  50 

Automatic  Sewage  Syphon,     ....  132 

Lift, 126,  128 

Sump  Tank, 128 

Syphon  Tank,         ....  65 

B 

Back  Pressure,         ......  13 

Barrel,   Contents  of,         .....  89 

Bath  Room  Plumbing,  (111.)    ....  27 

Beer  Work,  Coils  for,       ......  82 

Bell  Attached  to  Sink  Strainer,       ...  6 

Bending  Brass  Pipe,         .          .          .          .          .  76, 83 

Copper  Pipe,     .          .         .         .         .  72 

Lead    Pipe, 70,  72,  81 

Small  Pipe,         .....  82 

Bi-Transit  Waste  Packings,  Shelac  for,  .          .  83 

Blind  Vent, 135 

Block  Tin  Pipe,  to  Wipe  Joint  on,           .          .  82 

Boilers,  Range, 37,39,42 

(139) 


140  Index. 

Supply   for, 37 

Syphonage  of, 37, 64 

Collapse  of, 39 

Collapsed,  to  Restore,         ...  72 

Bouyancy  of  Liquids, 55 

Brass  Pipe,  to  Bend, 76,  83 

Brazing,  Powdered  Tin  for,     .         .         .         .  "  84 

Bursting  of  Pipe, v  60 

Water   Front, 41 

By-Pass,  .  66 


Calked  Joints,  .....  *  20 

Capillary  Attraction,  .  .  .  .  -  .  56 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  .  .  .  •  .  f  .;  61,68 

Effects   of,           .         .         ...  135 

Source  of,  .  .  f  .  .  135 

Cast  Iron  Pipe,  Supports  for,  etc.,  ...  ,  17 

Connections    with,      .      .    .-       .         .  16,17 

Weights  of,  .  .  .  <.  v  15 

Cellar  Drainage,  System,  .  .  <.  .  19 

Trap,  .  .  .  .  .  7 

Cement,  a  Strong,  .  .  .  .  .  .  87 

For  Wash  Trays,  .  .  f  *  76 

Centrifugal  Force,  .  .  .  -  .  59 

Trap,  .  .  .  .  59 

Cesspool,  Leeching,  .  .  .22,  23, 130,  131,  136 

Water-tight  and  Leeching,  .  .  130 

Chimney  not  Used  for  Back  Venting,  .  .  12 

Connection  of  Local  Vent"  into,           .  31,  32 

Rise  of  Smoke  in,     .         .         .         .         .         .  133 

Circles,  Circumference,  Area,  etc.,  to  Find,  .  89 

Circulation, 37,  39,  40,  41,  59,  60 

Cistern,  to  Find  Capacity  of,  ....  91 

Cleanouts,  .......  18 

On  Trap  Vent, 122^ 


Index.  141 

For  S  Bath  Traps,       ....  122 

On   Traps, 137 

Coils  for  Beer  Work, 82 

Collapsed   Boiler,   to   Restore,          ...  72 

Compressibility  of  Air  and  Water,   ...  56 

Compression  Work,         .....  39 

Condensation,            ......  54 

Conduction  of  Heat, 134 

Conductors  of  Heat,         .....  134 

Conductor   Pipe,   House   Drain,       ...  19 

Contraction,     .......  S2 

Continuous  Venting,         .....     121, 123 

Copper,  Cleaning  Bath  for,  *    .  87 

To  Redden, 88 

To  Tin, 87 

Copper  Pipes,  to  Bend,     .....  72 

Counter-Venting,     ......  10 

Country  Plumbing,   (111.)          ....  51 

Crooked  Thread,  to   Cut,         ....  72 

Cup  Joints,.               35, 81 

Cylinders,  Contents  of, 89 

D 

Dead   End, 66 

Deep  Seal  Trap  for  Rain  Leaders,           .         .  74 

Deep  Well  Pumping,       .....  46 

Discharge  of  Water,  to  Compute,   ...  90 

Distillation,     ........  54 

Double   Boiler,          ......  40 

Double   Trapping,.            .'....  9 

Drain,  House.            ......  136 

Drainage,          .......  15 

Drain   Pipe,   Capacity  of,          ....  97 

Draught,  to  Remedy,         .....  80 

For   Local  Vent,         .         .         .         .  31,32 

In  Short  Chimney,     ....  133 

In  Large  Chimney,     ....  134 


142  Index. 

Drips  from   Safes,   ......  16 

Drip  Pan  for  Refrigerator,       ....  129 

Driven    Well, 49 

Drum  Trap,     .......  6 

Venting    of, 124 

Waste  Connections,  for,     .          .          .  124 
Durham  System  of  Plumbing,         .          .          .      129^130 


E 

Electrolysis,  Destruction  of  Pipes  by       .          .  137 

Evaporation, 53, 54 

Effected  by  Venting,  ....  n 

Of  Trap  Seal, 7,  54,  67 

Examination    Questions,  -.          .          .          .  ;  101 

Expansion,        .          .          .          .          .          .  '  .    ..  52 

•   Of    Water,           .          .          .          .         ,  -  -  52 

Expansion    Pipe,                 .          .          .                   ....  37,  52 


Filters,     ...                    ....  58 

Fixture  Vents,  size   of,    .          .          .         ,.          ;,.  10 

Fluid   Friction,          .          .          .          .                    .  55 

Flush    Tanks,           .          .          .          .      ... -,         ,  29,30 

Flush  Valve,   .....          .,     ....  126 

Flux, 59 

Force  Pump,   .......  45 

Forty-five  Degree  Measurement,     ...  74 

Freezing  Mixture,   ......  57 

Freezing  of  Pipes,  Protection  Against,     .          .  84 

Of    Water,          .          .          .          .          .  133 

Preventing  of  by  Oil,          .          .         u  135 

To  Stop  Flow, 74 

Fresh    Air    Inlet,     .           .          .          .          .          .24, 25, 54 

Friction   of  Water, 55 


Index.  143 

Frozen  Underground  Main,  to  Thaw,       .          .  86 

Fuller  Work, 39 

Fusion,   ........  59 


Galvanized    Piping,   to   Finish,          ...  82 

Gases  Absorbed  by  Water,       ....  57 

Gas  Meter,  to  Read, 67 

Gas  Pipes,  Leaks  on,       .....  73 

Gas  Piping  Table,    ......  92 

Glazing  Wiped  Joints,      .....  86 

Gravitation,      ........  59 

Grease   Stains,  to  Remove  from   Marble,         .  87 

Grease  Trap,  J.          .          .          .          .          .          .  7,69 

Greasing  of  Lead  Work,          ....  35 

Groover,    Substitute    for,          .          .          .          .  80 

Gurgling  in  Waste  Pipes,         .          .          .          .  16 

H 

Hangers,  Pipe,          ......  17 

Head  of  Water,  to  Find,         ....  89 

To  Produce  Given  Velocity,         .          .  91 

Heat,  Conduction  of,        .....  134 

Conductors   of,   .           .          .          .          .  134 

Heating  of  Water  in  Open  Vessel,           .          .  135 

High  Buildings,  Testing  of,    .          .          .          .  135 

House   Drain, 136. 

House    Sewer,           .          .'•"-.          .          .          .  136 

Horizontal  Calked  Joints,         ....  20 

Horse-Stall,   Plumbing   for,      ....  125 

Hot  and  Cold  Water  Supply,           ...  37 
Hot  Water  Boilers,           .          .          .     37,38,39,40,41,42 

House  Trap,     .......  5 

Hydraulics,       .......  54 

Hydraulic     Ram,      .  .          .          .          .          .   46, 47, 48 

Hydrogen,  to  Produce, 67 


144  Index. 


Insertable  Joint  on  Soil  Pipe,  .          .  57 

Intermittent  Syphon,        .....  65 

Internal  Partitions  in  Traps,   ....  5 


Lateral  Pressure  of  Water,     .          .  .  89 

Lavatories,  Trapping  of  Lines  of,  .  .  134 

Lead,  Depth  of  in  Joints,         ...  ,  19,20 

Melting  Point  of,         .          .  .  33 

Lead   Bend,  Vent   from,            .          .  .  .       .  .  „  II 

Lead  Burning  on  Small  Scale,         .  .  ,  78 

With  Soldering  Copper,     ,  ~.  .  79 

Leading   Small    Pipes,     .          .          /  .  ,-•      .  42 

Lead-lined  Soil  Pipe,  Joints  on,       .  ...  .  82 

Lead  Lining  for  Tank,   .          .  , .  .  70 

To  Support,         .          .         .  .  .  80 

Lead  Pipe,  Bending  of,   .          •         •  -  •  70,72 

Leak  on  Under  Side  of,     .  .  .  .  70,80 

Connections,       ...;>     ,         ,.  .  .  *6 

Square   Bend   in,          .          .  .  .  81 

Thickness  of  for  Given  Head,  •  .  .  91 

To    Finish,           .         '.     ^    .  .  .  75 

To   Lengthen,      .         .         ,  .  .  70 

To     Polish,           .          .          .  .  ^.  72 

To    Protect   Against   Rats,  -.  p  V  72 

To    Repair    Burst    on          .  .  .  34 

When  Water  Cannot  be  Entirely 

shut    off,          .          .  .  |  79 

To    String,            ....  79 

Weight    of,          ...  92 

Weight   of   Different   Sizes,  .  16 

Lead  Work,  Decrease  in  Use  of,     .  .      130*  136 

Leeching    Cesspool,          .  130 

Leeching  and  Watertight  Cesspool,  .  .  130 


Index.  145 

Lift-Force   Pump,   ......  44 

Liquids,  Conduction  of  Heat  by,     .         .         .  134 

Local    Venting,         .  31, 53 

Methods,     ......  31 

Draught,      .                   ....  32 

Sizes,  .......  32 

of  Urinals,  etc.,           ....  125 

M 

Main,   Frozen,   to   Thaw,          ....  86 

Main   Trap,.              ......  5 

Main  Vents,     .          .          .    *               .          .          .  11,12 

Marble,  Table  of  Areas,           .          .          .  95, 96 

To  Remove  Grease  Stains  from,   .          .  87 

Mechanical  Trap   Seals,            ....  6 

N 

Nickle  Pipes,  to  Tighten,         ....  73 

Non-conductors  of  Heat,         .          .          .         .  134 


Oil   Prevents  Freezing,    .          .          .          .*        .  57,  135 

Open    Plumbing,      ......  66 

Ornamental  Wiping,         .....  36 

Overcast    Joints, 35 

Oxyhydrogen  Flame,       .          .          .          .      *   .  67 


Paint,  to  Remove,     ......  86 

Paper,  as  Substitute  for  Wiping  Cloth,   .          .  75 

Paper  Lining  for  Wiping  Cloths,     .          .          .  75 

Paste,    to    Preserve, 87 

Peppermint  Test,     ......  20 

Pipe,  Brass,  to  Bend, 76,83 

Copper,  to  Bend,           .          .          ...  72 

10 


146  Index. 

Lead,  to  Bend, 70,  72, 81 

Small,    to    Bend,          .          .          .  82 

Contents  of  per  Foot,         ...  90 

Galvanized,  to  Finish,         ...  82 

Heating   of,          .....  68 

Close   Connections  to   Make  on,         .  76 

Protection  Against  Freezing,      .          .  41, 84 

Size  of  to  Receive  Other  Pipes,         .  90 

To  Discharge  Given  Amount  of  Water,  91 

For  Vents, .10,11 

Soil   and   Waste,          ....  15 

Water,  Support  for,     .          .          .          .  39, 40 

Weight  of  for  Given  Head,         .     •   •>  100 

For  Underground  Use,       .          .      .  ..-*  136 

Destroyed   by   Electrolysis,          .,      ||j  137 

Pitch  for  Soil  and  Waste  Pipes,         ...        ..  15,  18 

Plaster   of   Paris,   Rubber   Cup   for,          .    -',  .  76 

To  Prevent  Setting  Quickly,       ;       "  ".  87 

Plugging   Range   Boiler,            .          .       ..-.       .  ,  81 

Plumbing  Fixtures,  Heights  of,         .          .          .v  69 

Pneumatic  Water  Supply  System,   .          .          ,'  138 

Pressure  of  Column  of  Water,         .          .          .  '  89 

Lateral,  of  Water,       .          .          ...  89 

Of   Liquids,          .          .          .          .."',.  54 

Pump  Cylinder,  to  Compute  Diameter,     .  93 

Pumps,   .            .......  44 

Pure  Water,  Tests  for,     .                   .          .          .  92 

Putty  Joint, 73 

Q 

Quarter  Bends,         ......  18 

Questions,    Examination,          ....  101 

R 

Rain  Leaders,  Deep  Seal  Trap  for,         .          .  74 

Into   House   Drain,     ....  19 


Index.  147 

To  Prevent  Freezing  of,     .          .          .  81 

Ram,    Hydraulic,      .          ...          .          .          .   46,47,48 

Range   Boilers,          .          .          .          .  46, 47, 48, 71, 77 

To  Repair   Leak,          .          .          .          .  84 

To  Plug, 84 

Recipes, 87, 88 

Refrigerators,  .          .          .          .          .          .          .62,67 

Drip  Pan  for,      .          .          .          .          .  129 

Residence  Plumbing   (111.)        .          .          .          .     8,  14, 38 

Roof  Drainage,  to  Compute,     ....  90 

Local  Vent  through*  ....  31 

Pipe,   .          .         .    *    .          .  f  2,  18,  19, 20 

Rubber   Ells, 28 

Cup  for  Plaster  of  Paris,     ...  76 

Vent    Couplings,          ....  n 

Rules, 89 

Rust  Joint,       .......  72 


Safes,         .        .         .         .         .         .         .  16 

Drips  from,         .          .          .          .          .  16 

Sal- Ammoniac  for  Soldering  Coppers,     .          .  88 

Salt,  To  Prevent  Freezing,       ....  133 

Salting  of  Water  Closet  Traps,         ...  29 

Seal  of  Trap,  .......  5 

Breaking  of?         .....  5 

Mechanical,          .....  6 

Sediment  Cock,         ......  40 

Self-Closing    Work, 39 

Septic   Tank,    .                    .          .          .          .          .  131 

Bacterial  Action  in,     .          .          .          .  132 

Sewage  Effected  by  Cooling,  ....  68 

Sewage  Lift, 126,  128 

Syphon,       ......  132 

Sewer,    House,          ......  136 

Sewer    Connections,          .          .          .          .          .  21, 22 


148  Index. 

Sewer  Gas,  Effect  of,                 .         .          .         .'  61 

Sewer  Level,  Sewage  from  Fixtures  Below,     .  126 

Sewer  Pressure,       ......  13 

Shelac  for  Bi-Transit  Waste  Packings,     .          .  83 

Sinks,  Trapping  of  Lines  of,  .          .          .          .  134 

Smoke,  Rise  of  in  Chimney,     ....  133 

Smoke   Test,    .         .         .         ....  21 

Soil   Pipe, 15 

Caps  on, 18 

Connections  with,        .          .          .          .  16, 17 

Insertable  Joint  on,     ....  75 

Into  Earthen  Drain,   ....  18 

Lead-Lined,  Joints  on,         .         .         .  82 

Pitch  for, .15,  18 

To  Pour  Joint  when  no  Room  for 

Runner,         .          .         .         .  '       .  81 

To  Pour  Wet  Joint,  .         .         .         ,  75 

Weights  of,         .          .          .                   .  15 

Soil  Vent,         .          .          .          .                  _;          .  134 

Solder,     .  Y      33,34,35,36 

Joints,  •>;     33,34,35,36 

Soldering  Copper  for  Small  Lead  Burning,    /..  79 

To  Keep  in  Order,       ...         ...  88 

To  Tin, ,         .  88 

Sal-Ammoniac   for,      .          .         .         .  88 

Spanish  Windlass,   .......  80 

Specific    Gravity,      ......  58 

Square,  Proof  of, 89 

Square  Bend  in  Lead  Pipe,     .          .          .          .  81 

Square  Tank,   Contents  to  Find,     ...  89 

S  Traps,           .......  6 

Cleariout  for,       .          .          .          .          .  122 

Venting   of, 122 

Stacks,  High,  Testing  of,         ....  135 

Steam,   Invisible,      ......  135 

Suction,  Water  Raised  by,       ....  44 


Index.  149 

Suction  Pipe,  .......  48 

Pump,                    .         ....  44 

Sump  Tank,     .......  128 

Superheated    Steam,          .....  59 

Supporting  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe,         ...  17 

Water  Pipe, 39, 40 

Surface  Water,  Separate  Sewers  for,        .         .  137 

Syphon,   .........  63 

Syphon-Jet  Water  Closet,         .          .         .         .  63 

Syphon,   Sewage,     ......  132 

Syphon    Tank,          ......  64 

Syphon   Water    Closets,     »     .         .         .         .25, 26, 28 

Syphonage, 63 

Of  Range  Boilers,       ....  37 

Of  Traps, 64 

Of  Water  Closets,       .         .         .         .  28, 29 

Resistance  to,     .....  6 

Protection   Against,    ....  10 


Tank,  Square,  Contents  of, 

89 

Tank  Supply,  .... 

37 

Tees,  to  Read, 

:                    67 

Use  of  on  Soil  Pipe,  . 

17,  18 

Tell-Tale  Pipe, 

66 

Testing  of  High   Stacks, 

135 

Tests  for  Plumbing  System,   . 

.     •      .           20,  21 

Pure  Water, 

92 

Thread,  Hard  to  Start,     . 

74 

Tin,  Melting  Point  of,     . 

33 

Tinning    Copper, 

87 

Soldering  Coppers, 

88 

Traps,       

.     5,  6,  7,  9 

Cleanouts  for, 

137 

S,  Venting  of,     . 

122 

Drum,  Venting  of, 

.            .            .                 124 

ISO  Index. 

Waste  Connections  for,  .  '  .  124 

Trap,  Grease,  ^  7 

Trap,  Main,  .  .  .  .  .  5,  7 

Seal, 5 

Breaking  of,  5 

Vents,   Size  of,          ......  10 

Trapping  of  Lines  of  Sinks,  etc.,  .  .  .  134 

U 

Underground  Drainage,  Pipe  for,   .          .          .  136 

Underground  Pipes  Destroyed  by  Electrolysis,  137 

Urinals,  Use  of  M-etals  in  Construction  of,       .  138 

Waste  from,         .....  125 

Local  Venting  of,     .          .          .                    .          .  125 


Vacuum,  ......          .          .  53 

Vacuum  Valve,         ......  37, 50 

Velocity  of  Water  in  Pipes,     ....  91 

Vent,    Blind, X .  135 

Soil  and  Waste,           .          .          .          .  134 

Cleanout   on,        .          .          .          .          .  122 

Connections,        .          .          .           10,  n,  12,  13,  19 

Vented  Plumbing  System,       ....  66 

Ventilation,       .......  133 

Of  Tank  Room,           ....  42 

Venting,   Continuous,        .....  121,  125 

Effects  Evaporation,   .          .          .          .  n 

Of  Drum  Traps,           ....  124 

Of  S  Traps, 122 

Of  Traps,    ......  9 

Of  Water  Closets,       .          .          .          .  n,  12 

W 

Wash  for  Wiped  Joints,  .          .          .          .          .  86 


Index.  151 

Wash  Tray  Cement,         .          .          ...  76 

Waste    Pipe,    ........  15 

Sizes   of,  .          .          .          .          .15,  19 

Material   for,        .          .          .          .  15 

Gurgling  in, 16 

Pitch   of, 15 

Waste   Vent,    .......  134 

Water,  Absorption  of  Gases  by,       ...  57 

Boiling  Temperature  of,               .          .  57 

Composition    of,           ....  57 

Discharge  of j  to  Find,         ...  90 

Drainage  from  Roof,  to  Estimate,       .  90 

Expansion    of,     .  ^       .  52, 57 

Freezing  of,          .          .          ...  133 

Freezing  Temperature   of,            .          .  57 

Hard, 58 

Head  of,  to  Find,         ....  89 

Heating  of  in  Open  Vessel,         .          .  135 

To  Produce  Given  Velocity,       .          .  91 

Lead  Pipe,  for  Given  Head  of,   .          .  91 

Most   Dense,        ."....  57 

Pipe  to  Discharge  Given  Amount  of,   .  91 

Power  to  Raise,           ....  90 

Pressure  of,         .....  89 

Pure,  Tests  for,  .....  92 

Quantity  Delivered  by  Service  Pipes,  98 

Raised  per  Minute,     ....  94 

Soft, 58 

Table  of  Pressures  of;         ...  99 
Velocity      of      Through      Horizontal 

Pipes, 90 

Vessels  Burst  by,         ....  57 

Weight  and  Volume  of,       ...  69 

iWater  Closets, 26 

Low-Down,          .          .          .          .          .  30 

Syphon, 25,  26,  28 

Tanks, 29, 30 


152 


Index. 


Valves    for,                                       .          .  29 
Venting   of,          ....           11,12,126 

Washout, 28 

Without  Lead  Bend,  ....  130 

Water  Front,  Bursting  of,        ....  41 

Water   Hammer,      ......  42 

Water   Supply, 37 

For  Country,       .                   .         .          .  39 

Pneumatic  System  of,         ...  138 

Water  Test,  Plumbing  Ready  for,           .         .  128 

Water-Tight  and  Leeching  Cesspool,     .         .  130 

Well,  to  Find  Capacity  of,       ....  91 

Wet  Joint  to  Pour, 75 

To  Wipe,    .......  76 

Wiped  Joints,  Advantage  of,     ....  19 

Made  with  Paper  Cloth,     .         .         .  75 

On   Block  Tin   Pipe,           ...  82 

To  Wash  or  Glaze,     ....  86 

Wet,  to  Make, 76 

Wiping,  to  Set  up  Work  for,  ....  83 

Of  Large  Joints,  to  Hold  Heat  for,     .  84 

Wiping  Cloths, 33,34 

Paper  Lined,       .....  75 

Used  as, 75 

Wiping  Solder,         ...'...  33 

Wooden  Fixtures,   ......  68 


Y  Branches,  Use  of, 


Zinc  in  Solder, 


34 


C A 


Questions  and  flnswers 

On  tbe  Practice  and  theory  of 

Sanitary  Plumbing 

(8th  Edition— 1907) 

A    BOOK    FULL    OF    INFORMATION    ON    ALL 
KINDS  OF  PLUMBING  WORK. 

It  contains^,  many  practical 
Rules,  Receipts,  and 

"Tricks  of  the  Trade" 

Few  books  relating  to  the  Plumbing  Trade  are  practical, 
but  the  author  has  endeavored  to  make  this 

J\  thoroughly  Practical  Plumbers'  Reference  Book 

List  oi  Examination  Questions, 
(Increased  from  350  to  400) 

A    COMPLETE   PREPARATION 
For  Board  of  Health  Examinations. 


The  8th  edition  (1907)  has  more  illustrations,  more 
examination  questions,  and  much  more  reading  matter 
than  the  preceding  edition. 


(i  or  2  ct.  stamps  may  be  sent  for  this  amount.) 

t.    IVI-  S'barjbuolc    &     Son; 

Mar-tfor-cfl,     G 


"Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated" 

First  appeared  in  1899  as  the  "Starbuck  Plumbing 
Charts,"  a  set  of  50  blue  prints.  In  1900  it  was 
revised  and  enlarged  under  its  present  title, 
published  in  blue  print  form  and  without  text. 
The  rapid  changes  in  plumbing  construction  have 
now  made  a  second  revision  necessary,  and  in 
making  this  revision, 

The  Value  of  the  Work  has 
been  Increased  TEN-FOLD. 

While  the  illustrations  are  still  a  leading  feature, 
a  large  amount  of  text  of  an  entirely  up-to-date 
character  makes  this  work 

An  Absolute  Authority  on 
MODERN  PLUMBING. 

Each  illustration  has  been  prepared  especially 
for  this  work.  An  unusually  extensive  index 
gives  it  additional  value. 

"MODERN  PLUMBING  ILLUSTRATED" 

—  :  CONTAINS:— 


400   pages    ;X  in-  x  IOX  in->    an      55     u      Pa£e 
cuts,  showing   about    175    different  illustrations. 

Price,  Express  Prepaid,  $4.00. 


The  following  partial  list  of  subjects  will 
show  that  ' 'Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated" 
covers  the  entire  field  of  plumbing.  The 
work  is  concise,  comprehensive,  practical  and 
entirely  up-to-date. 

Partial  List  of  Subjects 

Connections  and  working  data  for  all  fixtures,  traps, 
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soil  pipe  connections,  supporting,  etc.,  rain  leaders,  floor 
and  yard  drains,  sub-soil  drainage,  main  traps  and  fresh 
air  inlet,  local  venting, 

Plumber's  Estimating 


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stable,  automatic  flushing,  flush  valves,  Durham  system, 
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of  sewage  of  underground  floors,  country  plumbing,  cess- 
pools, septic  tank,  sewage  siphons,  pneumatic  water  supply, 
rams,  pumps,  syphon,  electrolysis,  thawing  by  electricity 
house  tanks,  automatic  tank  regulation,  double  boiler, 
etc.,  etc. 


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"Hot  Water  Circulation  Illustrated." 

50  Blue  Prints  (Bound) 

Showing   Range  Boiler   Connections  and   Hot 
Water  Circulation 

Put  in  under  all  possible  conditions. 
Full  Notes  and  Practical  Suggestions. 

NOTE 

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conies  largely  from  experience,  and  "Hot 
Water  Circulation  Illustrated  "  we  claim  as 

The  Result  of  35  Years9  Experience 

with  this  class  of  work. 

Price,  Postpaid 

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SPECIAL  OFFER 

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"  Questions  and  Answers  on  the  Practice 
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An  Up-to-Date  and  Thoroughly 

Practical  Reference  Book 

For  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Fitters 


* 

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It  also  contains  numerous  tables,  data,  rules,  "Tricks 
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Fully  Illustrated 

Equally  valuable  to  the   Heating   Engineer  and    to    the 
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$1.00  Postpaid 

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Plumbing  Charts 

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"    2.    .Plumbing  for  Double  Apartment 
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"    4.     Hot  and  Cold   Water  Supply  for 
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These  drawings  are  handsomely  shaded,  and 
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Price,  Postpaid: 

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Complete  Set  of  &  Drawings,       J-  '  S3. GO 

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"Mechanical  Drawing  for 
Plumbers." 

BY  R.  M.  STARBUCK 


Contains  110  Pages 

Handsomely  Bound 

Illustrated  with 

150  Pen  and   Ink  Drawings 


This  work  is  concise,  comprehensive  and  practical,  deal- 
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the  plumber  needs  in  his  work. 

Nothing  will  so  help  the  plumber  in  estimating  and  in 
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THE  STARBUCK 

EXAMINATION  CHARTS 

For  Boards  of  Health  and 
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The  Set  Consists  of  3  Drawings  21  x  30  in. 

WITH  KEY  TO  EACH  CHART. 

The  Charts  Show  Plans  and  Elevations  of  Plumbing  Work 

Installed  in  an  Incorrect  Manner,  and  it  is  the 

Duty  of  the  Applicant  for  Examination 

to  Show  his  Examiners  the  Errors 

that  Exist  and  the  Way  in 

which    the    Work    should 

be  Performed. 

They  Make  Examinations 

Effective,    Systematic    and   Thorough 

List  of  Examination  Boards  which  have  adopted  the 
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F»i-ice?,     t=>&r     se-fc 

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Extra  Heavy  Paper $5.00 


Starbuck's  Examination  Forms 

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complete,  by  filling  in  the  entire  sheet  in  pencil. 

SIX  DIFFERENT   PLUMBING  SYSTEMS. 

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